* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download INFLECTIONAL AND LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY
Chinese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Comparison (grammar) wikipedia , lookup
Ojibwe grammar wikipedia , lookup
Macedonian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Navajo grammar wikipedia , lookup
Compound (linguistics) wikipedia , lookup
Japanese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Distributed morphology wikipedia , lookup
Modern Hebrew grammar wikipedia , lookup
Arabic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Agglutination wikipedia , lookup
Ukrainian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Lithuanian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Kannada grammar wikipedia , lookup
Old Norse morphology wikipedia , lookup
Malay grammar wikipedia , lookup
Zulu grammar wikipedia , lookup
Old Irish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Swedish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Portuguese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Italian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Spanish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Latin syntax wikipedia , lookup
Old English grammar wikipedia , lookup
Morphology (linguistics) wikipedia , lookup
Esperanto grammar wikipedia , lookup
Icelandic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Romanian nouns wikipedia , lookup
Lexical semantics wikipedia , lookup
Russian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Serbo-Croatian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Russian declension wikipedia , lookup
Modern Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
Yiddish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Scottish Gaelic grammar wikipedia , lookup
French grammar wikipedia , lookup
Ancient Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
GLOSSOLOGTA1 (1982)27-ss 27 INFLECTIONAL AND LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY - A LINGUISTIC CONTINUUM URS ULA S T E PH AN Y Lexicaland inflectionalmorphologyform a scaledcontinuumwith respectto grammaticalizapertaining tion. Examination of the principallinguisticcategoties to the majorlexicalclasses of nouns,adjectives, and verbsshowsthat languages differin thedegreeto whichtheygrammaticalize 'inflectional' phenomena suchcategories and that withinone and the samelanguage do indeed positions occupyquitedifferent on thescaleof grammaticalization andmay evenfadeintothelexiphenomena linguistic if theirdifferential cal domain.Continuous canonly be adequately described is takeninto consideration. behavioron a set of oarameters l. The Word in Morphology and Syntax The word is the linguistic unit par excellencein the speakers'understandingof their languageas well as in traditionallinguisticdescription.The two traditionaldisciplines, morphologyand syntax,are concernedwith the structureof words and with the rulesby which they are combinedin sentences, respectively.r The role of morphology in the grammaticalanalysisof languagesis dependentupon the relativecomplexity of the word. Languagesdiffer typologically in this respect.Whereasin an ideal isolatinglanguagethere would be a one-to-onecorrespondence of words and morphemes,in more syntheticlanguagesthe word on the averageconsistsof more than one morpheme. On the index of synthesis the two extremes are isolating and polysynthetic.2Vietnameseand Chinese are examplesof languagesapproachingthe isolatingtype, while many North-AmericanIndian languagesare polysynthetic.In such languagesit may be difficult to tell word and phraseapart; morphologicaland syntactic A c c o r d i n gt o L y o n s ( 1 9 6 8 : 1 9 4 )" t h e v e r y t e r m s ' m o r p h o l o g y ' a n d ' s y n t a x ' .a n d t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e y a r e a p p l i e d .i m p l y t h e p r i m a c y o f t h e w o r d . T y p o l o g i c a l l ys p e a k i n g . ' m o r p h o l o g y ' i s s i m p l y ' t h e s t u d y o f f o r m s ' a n d ' s y n t a x ' t h e t h e o r y o f ' p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r ' :i t w a s t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d b y t r a d i t i o n a lg r a m m a r i a n st h a t t h e ' f o r m s ' t r e a t e di n g r a m m a r a r e t h e f o r m s o f w o r d s a n d t h a t w o r d s a r e t h e u n i t s w h i c h a r e ' p u t t o g e t h e r ' .o r c o m b i n e d i n s e n t e n c e s . " O n m o r p h o l o g i c a lt y p o l o g y c f . C o m r i e ( 1 9 8 1 : 3 9 f f ) . U. Stephany/ Inflectional and lexical morphology 28 structure strongly overlaP.l the chieffunctionof which is to predicate'SenWords are combinedto form sentences. tencescharacteristicallyconsist of a verb, belongingto the word-classwith primarily predicative function. and nouns. a word-class with primarily referential function'a and to express of sentences to mark the constituents Languagesuse a variety of strategies of different the use is inflection, strategies these of One each other. how they are relatedto (1) in example nouns the functions of object and subject the word-forms.Thus, in Latin are signalledby their nominativeand accusativecase forms, respectively. ( l ) ( a ) p u e l l ap u e r u m l a u d a t . (b) puellam puer laudat. A languagelike Mod. Englishwith lessnoun morphologymakesuseof a differenttype of strategyin such cases,namelythe positionof the noun phrasesrelativeto the verb (example 2). (2) (a) the girl praisesthe boy. (b) the boy praisesthe girl' 2. Morphology The study of morphology comprisestwo subjects,inflection and derivation.Inflection is concernedwith the study of word-forms and the processesby which they are formed. Derivation studiesthe structure of lexemes,of words in the senseof lexical units, and of i.e. the rules by which languagesform new lexical,as opposedto inflectionalprocesses, words. These domains of morphologicalstudy have thereforebeencalled inflectionaland lexical morphology. 2.1. Lexical Morphology Languagesare constantlyfacedwith the necessityof adaptingtheir lexicalstock to new communicativeneeds.New words servethe purposeof naming new concepts,thus more or lessstabilizingthem and making them availablefor linguisticcommunicationas a kind of 'prefabricated' unit.s Although languagesdiffer in the way domains of cognitive categoriesare lexicalizedas well as in the detail to which this is done, this must not be 'name' categories.6 In any languagea speakerhas confusedwith their generalability to r 4 5 6 Cf. Nida (1949:104f0. C f . S a p i r ( l 9 2 l : 1 1 9 ) a n d Lyons(19'17:4290. C f . B o l i n g e r( 1 9 7 5 : l 0 8 f l ) a n d M o t s c h( 1 9 7 7 : 1 8 3 ) . T h i s p o i n t i s s t r e s s e db y B r o w n( 1 9 5 8 : 2 3 4 f ) . U. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology the possibilityof naming differentkinds of snow, althoughmaybe not by separatereadymade lexicalitems as e.g.in Eskimo, but by phraseshe may constructfor this very purpose. Word-classesopen to new lexical formations are above all the major categoriesof nouns, adjectives,verbs, and adverbs;?much less so the more grammaticalizedlexical categories,such as auxiliaries,adpositions,pronouns,and determiners.It is preciselythis differencebetweenopen and closedlexicalclasseswhich is observedby Lewis Carroll in his Jabberwocky: (3) 'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe: All mimsy were the borogoves, And the mome raths outgrabe. The invented words all belong to the classesof nouns, adjectives,or verbs. The main processof word-formation is derivation,the formation of new words on the basis of existingones.EThis is done either by compoundingwords (or rather roots or stems)or by adding a derivationalaffix to a root or stem serving as its derivationalbase.e In the German noun Eiffihrungsvorlesung 'introductory lecture' both kinds of derivational processes,composition and derivation (in the restricted senseof the term), occur (figure l). NouNANouN COMP. MARK DER. SUF VERBSTEM DER. SUF DER. PREF VERBROOT DER. PREF VERBSTEM I ein ftihr ung les ung Fie. l. Word formation. C f . B o l i n g e r( 1 9 7 5 : 1l 0 ) . C f . B o l i n g e r( 1 9 7 5 : 1 0 8 )a n d A r o n o f f ( 1 9 1 6 : 2 1 ) . A l t h o u g h a f T i x a t i o ni s b y f a r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d e r i v a t i o n a tl e c h n i q u eb e s i d e sc o m p o u n d i n g . i t i s n o t t h e o n l y o n e . O t h e r d e r i v a t i o n a lp r o c e s s e sc o m p r i s e a b l a u t a n d c o n v e r s i o n( z e r o derivation). [J. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology derivativesare Compounds are complex lexical items containingmore than one root; between derived from roots or stems by means of lexical formatives.toThe boundary if lexdecide to not easy compositionand derivationis not clear-cut,however.Thus, it is 'to translate'or vorlesen'to read (s'th' to ically complex verbs like German ubersetzen yr s a g e n e r a l t e n d e n cf o s r c o m p o u n d s . r r T h e ri e s . o . ) ' s h o u l db e c o n s i d e r e ad s d e r i v a t i o n o correspondand, languagesr2 descriptiveterms to become less descriptivein the history of derivational ingly. for freemorphemesto becomebound.Thus, the Mod' High German 'mankind', Mannschaft 'team', Christen-tum, -schaft, as in Menschheit and suffixes-fteit, tum'Christianity'. were nouns in Middle or Old High German.t3 positionson a conCompositionand derivation,as definedabove,representonly two to unanalyzable sentences entire from extending formations, lexical tinuous scale of techniques'ra gamut lexical of this from choose they way in the differ labels.Languages purposes(examnaming for sentences use exceptionally only English and While German ple 4a), fossilizedclausesquite frequently servethis functionin Maasai, an Eastern Nilotic (example4b)'t5 language,especiallyas far as names of animals are concerned 'forget-me-not' (a) (a) VergiBmeinnicht tuli ibor(b) enaC L. PREF-REL.PRON-be.white-buttock 'Thomson's gazelle' Mod. Greek makesuse of genitivephraseswithout any determinersof the modifiernoun 'things' (example5a),'uwhile German prefersthe lexicaltechniqueof composito name tion in such cases(examPle5b). 'cow's milk' (5) (a) Tala ajel66a-s milk cow- GEN.SG 'cow's milk' (b) Kuhmilch of Languagesmay changetheir preferredways of forming new lexical items in the course in conimportance in gaining enormously their history. Nominal compositionhas been predominated' temporaryFrench,r?while in former historicalstagesit was derivationthat l0oncompositionandderivationcf.Matthews(1974:38f0. Cf. " t2 Cf. r:1 Cf. 14 Cf. Malkiel (1978:12'7n. S e i l e r( 1 9 7 5 : 4I ) . F l e i s c h e r( 1 9 7 5 : 1 5 0 .1 6 0 f 0 ' S e i l e r( 1 9 7 9 / 8 0 ) ' r 5 E x a m p l e ( 4 b ) i s t a k e n f r o m T u c k e r / M p a a y e i( 1 9 5 5 : 3 0 9 ) .T h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n M a a s a i n a m i n g (Institut ftir Afrikanistik' u proceduresand the analysisof the example are due to Dr. vossen niversityo ' f Cologne)' r 6 C f . K a t s i n a v a k i s( i n p r e p . ) ' t1 Cf. Benveniste (1966). I I I I U. St- :nn.y 2.2. Lexical versus Inflectional In lectional and lexical morphology Morphology In order to fulfil their functions as man's chief means of communication,languages needlexical as well as grammatical,i.e. inflectionaland/or syntactic,devices.Sincegrammatical entities(inflectionalformatives,function words) may have lexical meaningbesides their grammatical function and lexical entities(derivational formatives, content words) may be inherentlyrelational,the grammaticaland lexicaldomains- and hencealso inflectional and lexical morphology are not strictly separated in the structure of language. Languagesmake use of the samekinds of techniquesboth for inflectionaland lexical formations.Thus, the Mod. Greek adjective ksitinos'wooden' adoptsdifferentinflectional forms dependingon the syntactic constructionsin which it occurs (example6). -o (6) (a) ayorase 6na ksilin yrafi-o. b o u g h t : 3 . S Ga : A C C . S G . N w o o d e n - A c C . S G . N d e s k - A C C . S G . N 'She bought a wooden desk.' -a (b) protim6i yrafr-a. ksilin p r e f e r : 3 . S Gw o o d e n -A C C . P L . N d e s k - A C C . P L . N 'She preferswooden desks.' Theseare formed by adding differentinflectionalsuffixesto the stemksilin-, which is itself derived from the root ksil- 'wood' by suffixation of the derivationalmorpheme -in-. German Flug 'flight'as well asflog 'flew'are relatedtofliegen 'to fly'by ablaut. But whereas FIug andfliegen are different lexemes,/og andfliegen are different forms of one and the same lexeme. In spite of this parallelismof inflectionaland lexical techniquesthere are, however,important dilferencesbetweenthe two domains of morphology. In example(6) the specific inflectional forms adopted by the adjective are prescribedby grammatical rule. Forms like ksitina GEN.SG.N or ksittnlACC.SG.F would be ungrammaticalin the givencontexts. There is on the other hand no grammatical rule which forces the speakerto use an adjectivederived by -inos rather than one in -enios(such as ksildnios'wooden') or an adjective not formed by any lexicalprocessat all, such as ordos'beautiful'.Thus, while inflectionalformations are determinedby syntacticrule and thereforecan not be substitut..erd by forms not carrying the appropriatesyntacticinformation (such as a certain case,number, and gender),such restrictionsdo not govern the distributionof complexvs. simple lexical items of a given word-class. Other well-known differencesbetweeninflectionaland lexical morphology concernthe more peripheralposition of inflectionalas opposedto lexical formativesin the structureof the word, the highly restrictedproductivityof lexicalas comparedto inflectionalrules,the ability of lexical, but not of inflectional processesto effect changesin word-classmembership.tsFurthermore, the choice between different formal means not determined by r E F o r a c o m p a r i s o no f i n f l e c t i o n a l a n d l e x i c a l m o r p h o l o g y c f . B l o o m f i e l d( 1 9 3 3 : 2 2 2 f 0 . N i d a ( 1 9 4 9 : 9 9 f ) ,M a t t h e w s ( 1 9 7 4 : c h . I I I ) . a n d P l a n k ( 1 9 8 1: 8 f f ) . U. Stephany/ Inflectional and lexical morphology 32 syntactic rule and a correspondingtendency to exploit formal differencesfor semantic purposes are more typical of lexical morphology, while pairs of inflectionally related forms are characterizedby correlationsof grammatical featuresand a constant proportionality of expressionand content.re The differencesbetweeninflectional and lexical morphology could be summarizedby stating that the inflectionaldomain of morphologyis grammaticalizedwhile the lexical domain is not.20But as observedabove,the boundariesbetweeninflectionaland lexical phenomenaare not clear-cut.It should thereforecome as no surprisethat languagesdiffer as to which linguisticcategoriesthey grammaticalizeand in the degreeto which they do this. In sections3 to 5 we shall examinethe lexicalcategoriesof nouns,adjectives,and verbs and show that linguistic categorieswhich belong to inflectionalmorphology in the Indo-Europeanlanguagesmay be much less grammaticalizedin languagesof different do geneticaffiliationsand that within one and the samelanguage'inflectional'phenomena indeed occupy quite different positionson the scaleof grammaticalizationand may eventually fade into the lexical domain. The final sectionwill be devotedto the descriptionof such linguisticcontinua. 3. Case, Number, and Gender in the Noun 3 . 1 .C a s e As shown above (example l), in a language like Latin, which has the grammatical techniqueof inflection, nouns adopt different case forms according to their functions in syntactic constructions.For this reasoncase forms cannot be exchangedat will. Senten- differ in meaning,while (7c),with a ces(la) and (lb) - repeatedhereas (7a) and (7b) second nominative instead of the accusativeobject required by the verb laudare, is ungrammatical. (7) (a) puella puerum laudat' (b) puell'm Puer laudat. (c) *puella pu.erlaudat. Due tci the fact that it incorporatesboth the Indo-Europeaninstrumentaland locative cases,the Latin ablativefulfils a variety of functions, such as denoting origin' place, and time, as exemplifiedby examples(8a) to (8c). (8) (a) puer nobili genere natus fuit. (b) puer rare natus fuit' (c) puer Kalendis Ianuariis natus fuit. Unlike direct and indirect objects, adverbial phrasesdo not usually belong to the argu- For these features of the inflectional paradigm cf. Seiler (1966) and (1967) and the following sections. 20 On grammaticalization cf. Lyons (1977:234f) and Lehmann (in prep.) U. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology -')-) ment structure of the verb.zrWhile (9a) is ungrammatical,becausethe verb laudare requires a direct object, sentence(9b) is perfectly correct without any of the adverbial phrasesof (8), at least if the subject noun phrase is interpretedas indefinite. (9) (a) *puer laudat. (b) puer natus fuit. At the sametime, all threeadverbialphrasesof (8) may be combinedin one and the same sentence(examplel0a), while it is impossibleto simplyjuxtaposetwo direct objectsin a sentencelike (l0b). (10) (a) puer nobill genere rure Kalendis lanuariis natus fuit. (b) *puer puellam canem laudat. The compatibility of the three adverbial phrasesin (l0a) points to their differencein function. Contrary to the nominative and the accusative,the ablativeis in someof its functions replaceableby a non-inflectedform (example I l). ( I I ) (a) puer rureliDi natus fuit. (b) puer Katendis lanuariisltan natus fuit. All this shows that the ablativecase behavesrather differentlyfrom the more 'grammatical' casesnominative,accusative,and genitiveand that it plays a lesscentralrole in the systemof Latin syntacticfunctions.22 In spiteof this, the ablativeis rightly considered as part of the Latin inflectionalsystem, however, for it belongs to the declensional paradigmof the noun. All Latin nouns have an ablativecase-form,and the sametype of techniquesare used for forming the ablative as well as the other caseforms. The ablative obeys the systematiccorrelationstypical of the paradigm, in which there is a regular correspondenceof certain formal differencesto certain meaning differences,as exemp l i f i e db y ( 1 2 ) . 2 3 ( 1 2 ) p u e r u m :p u e r o : p u e l l a m :p u e l l a : g € l 1 u Sgl e n e r e : t u r r i m : t u r r i : . . . As is typical of Latin cases,the ablativeis used to signal syntacticfunctions"such as thosein (8), and to mark the relatedness of sentenceconstituents.Thus, in sentence(8a) the abjective nobilis agrees with its head noun in case, number, and gender. The morphologicalformativecarrying amongothersthe ablativecasefunction constitutesthe endingof the word. It doesnot allow any further suffixesafter it. This is typical of inflections formed by suffixation. 7t C e r t a i nv e r b s .l i k e M o d . G r e e k m d n o i n t h e s e n s eo f ' t o d w e l l ' o r G e r m a n v , o h n e n' t o d w e l l l d o r e q u i r e a l o c a t i v e p h r a s e .h o w e v e r . 7 2 C f . K u r y / o w i c z ( 1 9 4 9 ) a n d S e i l e r( 1 9 6 7 : 5 0 0 . 2 r C f . S e i l e r( 1 9 6 6 ) a n d ( 1 9 6 ' D . Ll. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology 34 3.2. Number In the inflectionalendings of Latin nouns the category of case is fused with the categoryof number and thus expressedobligatorilyas well. In Indo-Europeanlanguages the category of number is usually grammaticalized,for in theselanguagesthe discrete In languageslike Mod. way of conceptualizingsubstantivemeaningspredominates.2a or as spitilHauslhouselmaison such Greek. German, English,and French word-forms are relativeplural. There put into the be may and psdmalLi)gellielmensongearesingular ly few nouns in these languageswith non-discreteconceptual meanings,such as musik{lMusiklmusiclmusiqueor yrilalMilchlmitkllait. Although the latter are formally in the singular,the unmarkednumber,they are actuallyneutralrelativeto number.Contrary to true singulars,they may occur in plural contexts(example l3). (13) (a) (b) (c) (d) *spitiul *psdmatos 8iafora i6i mustkislydlaktosl *Hausl *Lilge verschiedeneArten von MusiklMilchl *lie *housel different kinds of musiclmilkl *maisonl *mensonge differentessortes de musiquellaitl the most freIn Indo-Europeanlanguagesthe plural is formed by inflectionaltechniques, a stem.The after quent of which is suffixation,f.e. the addition of a bound morpheme the category of grammaticalized nature most important proof of the inflectionaland thus In purposes.2s for syntactic it is used of number is, however,provided by the fact that English, and French also and German, languageslike Latin, Class. and Mod. Greek, number is used for signallingthe relatednessof the elementsin the sentence.Thus, in Mod. Greek the inflectibleelementsof the noun phraseagreein number,and the sameis true of subject and finite verb (example l4). kimite. meyalo skili ( l4) (a) to s t h e : N O M . S G . Nb i g : N O M . S G . N d o g : N O M . S G ' N l e e p : 3 . S G . P R S 'The big dog is sleeping.' kimunde. skilia (b) ta meyala the:NOM.PL.N big:NOM.PL.N dog:NOM.PL.N sleep:3.OL.PRS 'The big dogs are sleePing.' Elementsof the sentenceagreeingwith eachother refer to eachother.Languagesdiffer in the degreeto which this "referentialsystem"26is made use of. In German,just as in Mod. Greek, there is agreementin gender.case,and number among the inflectibleelementsof the noun phrase as well as in number betweensubject and finite verb (example l5). schldft. groBe Hund ( I 5) (a) der the:NOM.SG.M big:NOM.SG.M dog:NOM.SG.M sleep:3.SG.PRS 2 ' r C f . B i e r m a n n( 1 9 8 2 ) . 25 Cf. Sapir (1921:94f). 2 6 G r u n d z i i g e ,p . 5 6 8 . U. Stephany/ Inflectional and lexical morphology 35 'The big dog is sleeping. groBen (b) die Hunde schlafen. t h e : N O M . P L . Mb i g : N O M . P L . M d o g : N O M . P L . Ms l e e p : 3 . P L . P R S 'The big dogs are sleeping.' But whereasin Mod. Greek the adjectiveagreeswith its noun in attributiveas well as in predicativeuse, agreementin German is restrictedto the attributiveadjective(examples l6 and l7). ( 16) (a) to meyalo. ejine skili t h e : N O I v { . S G . Nd o g : N O M . S G . N b e c a m e : 3 . S Gb i g : N O M . S G . N 'The dog grew big.' (b) ta meyala. ejinan skili6 t h e : N O M . P L . N d o g : N O M . P L . N b e c a m e : 3 . P Lb i g : N O M . P L . N 'The dogs grew big.' groB. ( 17) (a) der wurde Hund t h e : N O M . S G . M d o g : N O M . S G . M b e c a m e : 3 . S Gb i g groB. (b) die wurden Hunde t h e : N O M . P L . M d o g : N O M . P L . M b e c a m e : 3 . P Lb i g Outsidethe Indo-Europeanfamily thereare languagesin which numberis lessstrongly grammaticalized. Thus. in Nootka, an American Indian languagespokenon Vancouver Consequently,number is not Island. expressionof the categtrryof number is optional.ZT though.plural usedfor agreementin this language.Much as in Indo-Europeanlanguages. is signalledby morphologicalmeans.The plural morphemeis a bound morphemeadded to the noun stem by suffixation(example l8). (18) inikw-ihl?minih?is- ?izE fire- in.the.house-PlURAl- DIM- ART 'the little fires in the house' A comparisonof the relativepositionsof the plural and diminutivesuffixesin Nootka and Mod. Greek (examplel9) shows that in Nootka the plural suffix is placedcloserto the root than the diminutive morpheme.while in Mod. Greek they are in reverseorder. 'little fires' (19) fot-riki-a fire-DIM-PL The relativeproximity of the plural morphemeto the root reflectsits degreeof gramto occupy less maticalization.There is a generaltendencyfor derivationalr.norphemes peripheralpositionsin the structureof the word than thoseof the inflectionalones.This is 2 7 C f . S a p i r ( 1 9 2I : 2 8 0 . 28 Example(20) is taken from Sapir (1921:134). LI. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology 36 due to the function of derivationalmorphemesto constitutelexemes,whereasinflections are outwardlyorientedtoward the other elementsof the sentenceand changeaccordingto the syntactic context. In Nootka plural is thus a less abstract category than in Mod. Greek, for example.The plural and the diminutive suffixesas well as the locative suffix tend to be derivationalrather than inflectionalin this American Indian language. A non-discreteway of conceptualizingnominal content also dominatesin Classical 'man' is neither singularnor plural but simply Tibetan. In example(20a) the noun ni neutral as to number. The speakeris not concernedwith differentiatingbetweenone or more relerentsof the object noun! and the grammaticalsystemof his languagedoes not compelhim to expressthis distinction.If he wishedto do so, however,he could introduce the word rnams'plural' as a syntactic modifier of mi (example20b). (20) (a) nga-s mi I- ERG man (b) nga-s mi I- ERG man mthong.2e 'I see a man/men.' see 'I see men. mthong. rnams plural see 'plural' functionsas an attributeand is thus on a par with The Class.Tibetan word for The fact that the conceptof plurality is exother attributiveelements,such as aCjectives. pressedby a free morpheme shows that it is even less grammaticalizedhere than in Nootka. While in Indo-Europeanlanguagesnumber is part of inflectionalmorphology and is syntacticallyused for agreement,in certain American Indian Languagesthe categoryof plural has a tendencytoward lexicalmorphology.It is not usedfor agreement.In Class. Tibetan plural is not even expressedmorphologically,but syntactically.Lexical and syntactic means of expressingthe concept of plurality are not, however,completely alien to languageswith a strongly grammaticalizedcategory of number. In German transnumeral nouns, such as Regen'rain', Fleisch'meat', Musik'music', may be pluralizedby taking 'rains', Fleischsorrecourseto lexical morphology, namely composition,as in Regenfalle 'pieces of music'.30Numeral adjectives,such as zwei 'kinds ten of ineat', Musikstilcke 'two', mehrere'several', viele'many', offer syntactic meansof expressingplurality. Number being grammaticalizedin German, theseextra-inflectionalproceduresare obligatorily accompanied by the inflectional expressionof plural. As these few examplesindicate, languagesdiffer gradually rather than radically in the grammaticalizationof number. 3.3. Gender As stated above, in fusional languageslike Latin or Greek each inflectionalformative 29 l0 E x a m p l e( 2 2 )i s t a k e nf r o m S a p i r( 1 9 2 1 : 1 0 6 ) . This type of examplewas brought to my attention by ElisabethLcibel (Institut fiir Universityof Cologne). Sprachwissenschaft. U. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology 37 typically combinesseveraltypes of grammaticalinformation.In the noun theseare case, number,and gender.Nouns may changetheir number and case-form,and fc.rrthis reason 'accidence'.The sameis not true of thesecategorieshave traditionallybeenconsideredas gender,which in those Indo-Europeanlanguagesmaking genderdistinctionsinheresto the noun. The Latin stem of puella is feminineand is thereforeexclusivelycompatible with the endingsof the a-declensioncontainingpredominantlyfemininenouns. Forms like *puellus or *puellum are not possibleLatin words of word-forms. Another characteristicof genderin Indo-Europeanlanguagesis that with the exceptionof certainnominal it is not semanticallybased.It thus comesas no surprisethat the word for subcategories 'table' is neuter in Mod. Greek (to trapdzi) while being feminine in French (la table) and masculinein German (der Tisch).Thereare someimportantexceptionsto the semantically arbitrary distributionof gender.Thus, in French the names of trees are nearly all masculine,while in Russianand German they are predominantlyfeminine.Another exceptionare nounsdenotinghuman beings.wheregrammaticalgenderusuallycorresponds to the sex of the referent.But even herethere are exceptions.While in French we have /e gargon (M) 'the boy' and la Jille (F) 'the girl', in German we find der Junge (M) but das Mddchen (N), whereasin Mod. Greek it is /o kopdli (N) and i kopdla (F). Although the of genderand sex in nouns denotingpersonssociallyconsideredas non-correspondence sexually immature is certainly no mere coincidence,the fact that a specificnoun has natural gender or not should not mislead one to make hasty cultural speculationsin languageswith stronglygrammaticalizedgender.In such languagesthe primary function of genderis to classifynounsinto differentinflectionaltypes and thus to signalwhich units of the sentenceare related and how they are related. Gender variation may marginallyoccur in languageswith grammaticalizedand thus predominantlyfixed gender,especiallyin learnedwords and other loan-words,as e.g. 'celibacy',Liter 'liter', and Joghurt'yogurt', which German Primat'primacy', Zblibat vary betweenmasculineand neutergender.According to a generallinguistictendencyof making use of lormal distinctionsfor semioticpurposes,in other nouns such genderdifferencescorrespondto different,but relatedmeanings(example2l). (21) Eibe M: 'inheritor', N: 'inheritance' 'salary' G e h a l t M : ' c o n t e n t , ' v a l u e ' ,N : 'hat', 'protection' F: Hut M: Balg M: 'skin'. N: 'brat' While in languageswith a rich systemof noun inflection,such as Latin and Class.Greek - and even Mod. Greek as comparedto German - a noun'sgendercan in the majority of casesbe recognizedby its nominativeform, genderis not formally marked in most German nouns. It is neither deduciblefrom their morphophonologicalstructurein the nominative singular nor from most other case forms. Thus, the phonologicallyquite in -er (22b). similar monosyllabicsin (22a) differ in genderas do the bisyllabics'ending 'blood' (22) (a) Flug (M) 'flight', Flut (F) 'flood', Blut (N) 'butter', 'sugar', (b) Zucker (M) Futter (N) 'feed' Butter (F) 38 U. Stephany/ Inflectional and \exical motphology The situation is quite different with the nouns in (23), however. 'god - goddess' (23) (a) Gott (M) - Gottin (F) 'slave' Sklave (M) - Sklavin (F) 'friend' Freund (M) - Freundin (F) 'lion - lioness' Lciwe (M) Lciwin (F) 'widow - widower' (b) Witwe (F) Witwer (M) 'goose - gander' Gans (F) Giinserich(M) 'duck drake' Ente (F) Enterich (M) In the forms in the right-handcolumn genderis overtly marked by the suffix and it is natural.Pairsof masculineand feminineforms denotingmasculineand the corresponding feminine beings also occur in languageslike Latin, Mod. Greek, and Italian. In these languagesgender is overtly marked in both forms (example24)' 'god - goddess' QD @) d€us (M) dea (F) 'slave' (b) 60los (M) - 6ula (F) 'cousin' (c) cugino (M) cugina (F) The phenomenonthat nouns denotingpersonsor animalscan serveas basesfor deriving nouns denoting referentsof the opposite sex is called motion. In the older stagesof languagedevelopmentit was only possibleto derive feminine forms from masculine forms, never the reverse.3rlnmodern languagesmasculineforms may be derivedfrom feminine forms as well (cf. example 23b above).A masculineor femininenoun is derived as shown by the German examples in complementarityto the genderof the classname,32 Gans G\lGiinserich (M), but Lbwe (M)l t\wtt? (F) in (23). Should motion be consideredan inflectionalor rather a lexical process?In Italian it seemspossibleto establishcorrelationslike (25), which apparentlylook quite the sameas t h o s ei n ( l 2 ) a b o v e . 3 3 ( 2 5 ) c u g i n o : c u g i n a : c a r o : c € I r a: mio: mia 'dear' and miolmia'my'are different inflectionalforms of the adjecThe forms carofcara adjectiveof the first personsingular,respectively.This can be tive caro and the possessive shown by the fact that their form, as far as genderand number are concerned,is determined by the syntacticconstructionsin which they occur (example26). (26) (a) il caro/*cara mio/*mia cugino (b) la caraf*caro mia/*mio cugina -o and their inThe compatibilityof the adjectivesendingin -o with the noun endingin r r U n t e r m a n n( 1 9 7 9 ) ' 1 r C f . P l a n k ( 1 9 8I : 9 6 f 1 ) . ' I t T h e f o l l o w i n g a r g u m e n t a t i o ni s l a r g e l y b a s e d o n M a t t h e w s ( 1 9 ' 7 4 : 4 4 f f ) ' u. Stephany/ Inflectionaland lexicalmorphology 39 compatibility with the noun ending in -a does not, however, show if the dependencyof gender (and number) betweennoun and adjectives(as well as the article) is mutual or directed.That gender(and number) in the determinersare indeeddeterminedby the noun can be proved by substitutingnouns which are doubtlesslydifferentlexemes,such as cQne 'dog' and madre'mother', for cugino and cugina, as in (27). (21) (a) il carol*cara mio/*mia cane (b) la caral*caro mia/*mio madre Just as cane andmadre determinegender and number of their determiners,so do cugino and cugtna.It follows that the relation betweenthe latter is lexical and not inflectionaland thus different from the relation betweencaro and cara or mio and mia and a host of other adjective forms, where, contrary to nouns, masculine forms quite regularly have correspondingfeminine forms, their use being determinedby grammatical rule. Contrary to inflectionalrules,the applicabilityof lexical rules is quite heavily restricted by different factors. One of theseis lexical stock. In German the rulc of motion is usually blocked if the correspondingconcept is already representedby a simple lexeme(example 28). (28) (a) Vater (M) - Mutter/*Vdterin (F) 'father - mother' (b) Mcinch (M) - Nonne/*Mcinchin(F)'monk - nun' But even if there are no correspondingsimple lexical items, derivationsformed by motion may still be,unacceptable,partly due to cultural reasons (example 29).tn (29) (a) Elefant (M) - *Elefantin (F) 'elephant' (b) Spinne (F) - *Spinnerich(M) 'spider' Derivation by the rule of motion changesa noun's gender class. In a languagelike German, in which genderis used for agreement,genderand sex of the referentmay conflict in masculine animal names, if referenceis to the female animal in particular. Although in anaphoricalreferenceto neuter nouns denoting personsagreementmay be according to sex in German (example 30a), gender of the noun takes precedenceover sex of the referent in animal names (example 30b). Buch aufgeschlagen. (30) (a) Das Mddchen hat seinlihr has POSS.3.SG.N/Fbook opened the:NOM.SG.N girl:N 'The girl has opened her book.' Junges und seinl*ihr (b) der Esel t h e : N O M . S G . M d o n k e y : M a n d P O S S . 3 . S G . M / Fy o u n g 'the donkey and its young (one)' With feminine class names such conflicts betweengender and sex do not arise (example 1 4 C f . P l a n k ( 1 9 8I : 9 8 ) . U. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology 40 absentfrom theseclass with -in are systematically 3l). For this reasonderivations names.35 (31) die Katze und ihr Junges P O S S.3 .S G .F t he: NOM.S G .F 'the cat and its young (one)' If one comparesmotion to the way genderis treatedin German in general,obvious differencesemergewhich leave no doubt as to the lexical nature of motion. While genderin most nouns is neithersemanticallyfounded nor marked by a separatemorphemebut solely exhibited by the declensionalparadigm a noun adheresto,36nouns derived by motion carry a specialsuffix which determinestheir semanticallybasedgender.Here we have one of the rare caseswhere gender change may take place in German. By motion masculine nouns becomefeminine(Lbwe -, L\win,23a) and femininenouns becomemasculine(,6nte - Enterich, 23b). Most importantly, however, application of the rule of motion does not simply lead to genderchangebut to a meaningdifferenceas well. The lexically simple nouns L'owe and Ente are the unmarked terms of the lexical oppositionsLowelLbwin and EntelEnterich. As the unmarked terms do not specify the sex of their referents,they can occur in contexts referring to both masculine and feminine sex. The distribution of the marked terms is more restricted,becausetheir meaning includesindication of the sex of their referents (example 32). (32) Jeder Zoo wird Lciwen/*Lciwinnenund Enten/*Enteriche beiderlei Geschlechts besitzen. 'Every zoo will have lions/*lionessesand ducks/*drakes of both sexes.' Furthermore, the rule of motion is heavily restrictedin its productivity, partly depending a considerationof no importance whaton the stock of derivationally simple lexemes,3? soever in inflection. The suffix of motion precedesthe inflectional ending and thus occupies a more central position in the word (example 33). (33) (a) Gdtt - in(n) - en god- MOV- PL (b) Ente- rich- e duck- MOV- PL 'goddesses' 'drakes' Unlike gender,motion as such is not used for agreementin German. The attributive adjective of a noun derived by motion only takes an ending marking the appropriate gender, case, and number, but not motion (example 34). (3a) (a) gro8-e Gcitt-in 'great goddess' 3 5 C f . P l a n k ( 1 9 8I : 9 9 0 . 36 Cf. Lehmann (forthcoming). 31 Sometimes doublets may occur, however, such as German Enterich'drake' in spite of Erpel. U. Stephany/ Inflectional and \exical morphology g r e a t - N O M . S G . Fg o d -M O V . N O M . S G . F (b) *grofJ-in Gcitt-in MOV MOV While in Indo-Europeanlanguagesgenderallocationwithout overt gendermarking is the rule and gendervariationas well as deriva.tional potentialof gender,as in motion, only occur exceptionally,there are other languageswhere gender is much more strongly semanticallyfounded and may thus be lexically productive,which, of course,requires genderto be overtly marked morphologically.3E These are the so-calledclass-languages comprisingmore than five noun-classes in most casesand exceptionallyas many as forty. In theselanguagesmost nouns are classifiedaccordingto semanticcharacteristics, such as ltuman, animate,animal, plant, tree, fruit, tool, and others.Such noun-classsystems are well known from African languages,especiallyBantu languages.le The derivational potentialand semanticfoundedness of class-prefixes are illustratedin example(35a)from Swahili, a Bantu language,and (35b) from Turkana, a Nilotic language. 'sack' (35) (a) m- fuko (Walter 1982:218) C L3-sack 'small sack, ki-fuko bag' CL7-sack 'big sack' A fuko CL5-sack ' m o u n t a i n ' ( H e i n e1 9 8 2 : l 9 l ) (b) e- moru big amoru 'stone' part ot 'hill. i- moru small stone' small Despite the tendency of the class systemsof typical classifyinglanguagestoward greater semanticfoundedness,more derivationalpotential,the possibilityof classification shift, and overt marking, it would be wrong to consider gender a matter of lexical morphology exclusivelyin these languages.The overall systematicityof noun class systemsand especiallytheir use for agreementprove that genderis grammaticalized to a certain extent.The scopeof agreementof classifyinglanguagesmay even exceedthat of the so-calledgenderlanguages, as e.g.the Indo-Europeanones.40 In the Swahilisentences (36) the class prefix of the subjectnoun is not only repeatedin its modifier but also in the verb.al ' r 8 O n g e n d e r i n n o n - I n d o - E u r o p e a nl a n g u a g e s c f . S e r z i s k o( 1 9 8 1 ) . H e i n e ( 1 9 8 2 ) . a n d W a l t e r ( l e82). ' ] e C f . H e i n e( 1 9 8 2 ) . 'r0 C f . H e i n e( 1 9 8 2 ) a n d W a l t e r ( 1 9 8 2 ) . 'rl E x a m p l e s( 3 6 ) h a v e b e e n a d a p t e d f r o m L a n g a c k e r ( 1 9 7 2 : 7 0 0 . lJ. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology 42 ni-toda. ki-moda ki-ta(36) (a) ki-tabu l . SG-suffice C L 7 F U T C L 7 o n e CL7-book 'One book wilt sufTice for me.' ni-to5a. (b) m- toto m- moda a- taCLI-child CLI-one CLI-FUT-l.SG-suffice 'One child for me.' will suffice not only indicategenderbut number as class-prefixes In most African class-languages well. for noun classesare always either singularor plural classes.Classificationis thus connectedto ranking.a2 As shown in the presentsection,genderis a phenomenonpertainingto both inflection and derivation.Dependingon the type of the language,it may be more closelyassociated with the inflectionalpole of the scale of grammaticalization,as e.g. in Indo-European languages,or on the contrary, with its lexicalpole, as in African classifyinglanguages'a3 4. Agreement and Comparison in the Adjective 4.1. Agreement Insofar as the adjectiveis marked for case,number, or gender,thesecategoriesare ful ly inflectional,for they are determinedby grammatical rule. To ask for the genderof an adjectiveas such would be meaningless,for the adjectiveadopts the genderof the noun it This is evidencedby the Swahili sentencesabove.While nouns belongto class modifies.aa 7 or class 1, the numeral adjective mdQa occurs with the prefix of class 7 in (36a), but with that of class I in (36b), dependingon the classprefix of the noun it is conltructed with. The adjectiveis marked for the genderclassof its noun and in this way the syntactic subordinationof the adjectiveto the head of the noun phrase is indicated.a5 4.2. Comparison Besidesforms servingagreementin gender,case,or number,adjectivesmay havecomparative forms, as exemplifiedin (37). (37) (a) Dieser Hund ist klein/kleinerlamkleinsten. (b) afto to skili ine mikro/mikrotero/to mikrotero. (c) This dog is small/smaller/smallest' Unlike agreement,comparisonis not possiblewith all adjectives,but is restrictedto C f . S e i l e r( 1 9 8 2 ) . C f . S e r z i s k o( 1 9 8I ) . Cf. Matthews ( 1974:46f1). C f . O s t r o w s k i( 1 9 8 2 ) . U. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology 43 gradableones.It is not possibleif the adjectivealready expresses an extremestate.the limit,a6such as dead, blind, or deaf. Adjectivessuch as the latter neitherhave comparative forms, norare they compatiblewith lexicalunits having a gradingfunction (examples38 to 40). (38) (a) *Der Hase ist toter als die Maus. (b) *Jemand/etwas ist besonderstot/nahtlos/dreieckig/verheiratet.a? (c) *Jemand/etwasist zu tot/nahtlosI dreieckiglverheiratet. (39) (a) *o layos ine nekroteros apo ton pondiko. (b) tkapios/k6ti ine i6idtera nekros/irafo/triyoniko/pandrem6nos. (c) *k6pios/kiti ine ipervolikrj nekrosI hr afoI trigoniko/pandremenos. (a0) (a) *The hare is deaderlmore dead than the mouse. (b) *Someone/somethingis especiallydead/seamless/triangular/married. (c) *Someone/somethingis too deadlseamless/triangular/married. The productivity of comparisonin adjectivesis thus restrictedby semanticconsiderations. While comparativeand superlativeforms of the adjectiveare constructedsynthetically in German (kleinlklein-erlklein-sf-), in English they may be constructed either synthetically or periphrastically,dependingon the phonologicalform of the adjective.The comparative and superlativeforms of monosyllablesand of bisyllabicsending in a reduced vowel are formed synthetically(example4l a), whereasthe free comparative mt.rrphemes more and most are used with longer adjectives(example4lb).48 (al) (a) hot, hotter. hottest lovely, lovelier,loveliest (b) beautiful. more beautiful. most beautiful Although comparisonwith -er and with more are in most instancesin complementarydistribution and the two morphemescould thereforebe consideredin suppletiverelation.a sentencelike I've neverseena man prouder is, accordingto Bolinger,"more likely to refer to activepride, say in the accomplishments of a daughter,whereasI've neverseena man The tendencyto exploitformal differences for semantic moreproud suggestsself-pride".ae purposesis more typical of lexical than of inflectionalprocesses. The adjectiveforms in (al show that in German and Mod. Greek.wherecomparatrve suffixesmay cooccur with inflectionalendingsmarking case,number,and gender.the former occupy a more central position in the structureof the word. 4 6 C f . G r u n d z i l g e ,p . 6 1 4 , 4 1 E x a m p l e s( 3 8 b ) a n d ( 3 8 c ) h a v e b e e n t a k e n f r o m G r u n d z i l g e ,p . 6 1 5 . 'rE C f . B o l i n g e r( 1 9 7 5 : 1 2 0 ) . 4 e B o l i n g e r ( 1 9 75 : 1 2 0 f ) 44 U. Stephany/ Inflectional and lexical morphology Hunde (a2) @) die klein-eren t h e s m a l l - C O M P - N O M . P L . Md o g : N O M . P L . M 'a (b) ta mikr-oter skilirl t h e s m a l l - C O M PN - OM.PL.N dog:NOM.PL.N 'the smaller dogs' As far as their relative proximity to the root is concerned,comparativesufftxesare comparable to suffixes forming adjectival derivativesin both languages(example 43). (a3) (a) die fleiBen igStudenten student:NOM.PL.M the diligence-DER-NOM.PL.M 'the diligent students' (b) i fitites eryat-ik-i the work- DER-NOM.PL.M student:NOM.PL.M Much as the derivative suffixesin (43),the comparativesuffrxesin (42) seemto form the adjectival base to which the inflectionalendings are added. The derivativesin (43) may, however,undergo comparison(example44). (aa) (a) die flei8-igen Studenten er31 DER-COMP-INFL 'the more diligent students' (b) i eryat-ik- oter- i fitites DER-COMP-INFL In this case the comparativesuffix is more peripheralthan the derivationalsuffrx and less so than the inflectional one. At least as far as German is concerned,this position of the comparativesuffix doesnot conflict with its possibleinflectionalstatus,as is shown by the forms in (45), where nominal and verbal basesare each followed by two suflixes of undoubtedly inflectional character. 'to the children' (a5) (a) den Kind-er -n the:DAT.PL child-PL-DAT 'you bought' (b) du kauf-t- est 2.SG buy- PRT-2.SG What about determination of comparative and superlative forms by grammatical rule?soThere are syntactic constructionsin which a comparative form of an adjective may be substitutedby a positive form without affecting grammaticality (example 46a), but comparative and positive are not always exchangeable(examples46b and 46c). (a6) (a) Der Aufsatz wird liinger/lang. 'The paper is getting longer/long.' (b) Der Aufsatz wird zu langl*zu liinger 50 Cf. also Matthervs (1974:48f). U. Stephany/ Inflectional and lexical morphology 45 'The paper is getting too long/rtoo longer.' (c) Dieser Aufsatz ist liinler/*lang als jener. 'This paper is longer/*longthan that one.' Even though the substitution test does not yield unambiguous results. the non' substitutabilityof the comparativeby the morphophonologically simplepositivein some constructionspoints to the fact that positiveand comparative(as well as superlative)are differentinflectionalforms of the adjectiverather than differentlexemes.srThis view also agreeswith lexicographicusage,wherecomparativeand superlativeforms of the adjective are treatedin the samelexicalentry as the positive,much the sameas singularand plural forms of the noun.s2 The most important evidencefor the inflectionalcharacterof comparisonis, however. furnished by the fact that positive, comparative, and superlativeform an independent paradigm,typical of the word class of adjectives.s3 Thesethree form types belong to a principleof constantproportionalityof closedset of forms obeyingthe afore-mentioned expressionand content.sa In the examplesgiven in (47) one and the same meaningdifferencecorrespondsto one and the same formal differencein each language.ss @ 7 ) ( a ) k l e i n : k l e i n e r : a m k l e i n s t e h: l a n g : l d n g e r : a m l d n g s t e n : r e g e l m d B i g : : ... regelmdBiger:am regelmdBigsten (b) mikros: mikroteros/pio mikros: o mikroteros/o p i o m i k r o s : m a k r i s : makriteros/piomakris:o makriteros/opio makris : taktikos: taktikoteros/pio taktikos: o taktikoteros/opio taktik6s : ... ( c ) s m a l l :s m a l l e r :s m a l l e s t : l o n g : l o n g e r :l o n g e s t : r e g u l a r :m o r e r e g u l a r :m o s t r e g u l a r: . . . Such regular conespondences cannot usually be sa up for derivativesand their bases.Thus. the sameformal differences in the proportion(48) are not matchedby a uniform meaning difference. (48) Richter: richterlich + Vater: vdterlich + Herz: herzlich + Widerspruch: widersprtichlich 'judge:.judicial father:paternal + + heart: hearty + contradiction:contradictory' While the denominal derivative richterlich is a relational adjectivemeaning des Richters 'of the judge', viiterlich may also signify a quality as in vdterlicher Freund 'fatherly - s r S e n t e n c e( 4 6 a ) m a y b e t a k e n a s c o m p a r i n gt h e l e n g t ho f ' t h e p a p e r t o a l b r m e r s t a g co l r t s c o m p o s i t i o n t h u s i m p l y i n g a c o m p a r i s o nt h e b a s i s o f w h i c h i s n o t e x p r e s s e d . s2 Cf. Matthews (1974:49). s'1 Cf . Grundzilge, p.603. 54 Cf. fn. 19. 5 ' < A c t u a l l y . w h a t m a t t e r s i s n o t t h a t t h e f o r m a l d i f f e r e n c ei s i n v a r i a n t b u t t h a t i t i s p r e d i c t a b l e ( s u c h a s t h e u m l a u t i n t h e s e c o n do f t h e G e r m a n e x a m p l e si n 4 7 a \ a n d t a k e n f r o m a c l o s e ds e t of formal means. 46 U. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology friend/friend like a father'. The meaning of herzlich is highly idiomatic. Herzlicher GrulJ 'greeting of the heart'. Widerspriichlich cannot be paraphrasedby *GruJJdes Herzens 'full of contradictisn5'.3 meaningwhich doesnot occur in any of the other exammeans ples.56 Certain membersof the inflectionalparadigmof comparisonmay howeverbecomelexcited in (47). In Gericalizedand thus escapethe regularform-meaningcorrespondences not who is older. but younger a lady refer to is to lady' used man dltere Dame'elderly than an old lady. Used in this way the comparativeform dlter is not part of the com'old, older, oldest',but belongsto the lexical seriesof parative seriesalt, dlter, am iiltesten positivesjung, iilter, alt'young, elderly,old' denoting a progressionof age as well. The discussionof the nature of comparisonhas shown that it does indeed possess typical characteristicsof inflection in such languagesas German, English, and Mod. Greek, but that it is not as closelyrelatedto the inflectionalpole of the scaleof grammaticalizationas the inflectionof the adjectivefor case, number, or gender. 5. Finite and Non-finite Forms of the Verb 5.1. Finite Verb Forms In languageshavinginflectionthe verb is the word classrichestin forms. This is due to the verb being the centerof the predicateor even the whole sentence.By meansof the categoriesof personand numberthe verb relatesto the speechact. In languageslike Latin the verb can serveto or Greek, which do not requirethe subjectto be overtly expressed, person referred to. In languages or realizethe communicativerolesof speaker,addressee, person and numthe subject, mention of explicit like German or English,which do require the syntactic way to clarifying in contribute and this with the subject ber in the verb agree In spite of their occurrencein the relation betweentheseconstituentsof the sentence.sT verb. personand number are not really verbal categories,for "personalparticipationin the speechact and countability...are not featuresof eventsor states".They are rather categoriespertainingto the argumentsof the verb,"the morphologicalreflectionof which appearsin the person-numberformativesof the verb".s8 Contrary to person and number, tense,aspect.mood. and voice are genuineverbal categories.Tense and aspectrepresentthe temporalityof situations,with tenselocating the descriptionof a situationin time - usuallywith respectto the time of utterance- and aspect expressingthe inner temporal structure of the situation described.Modal categoriesare concernedwith the speaker'sestimateof the validity of the descriptionof Finally. the categoryof voicewith activeand passiveallowsa situationto the situation.se be expressedeitherwith referenceto the agentor with referenceto the patient(example s 6 O n d e n o m i n a l a d j e c t i v e sw i t h - l i c h c f ' F l e i s c h e r( 1 9 7 5 : 2 6 8 f 0 ' 5 ? C f . G r u n d z i l g e ,p p . 5 3 9 f a n d 6 3 3 . 5tt Grundzilge, p.540. 5e Cf. Grundzilge, pp.501 and 520ff. U. Stephany/ Inflectional and lexical morphology 17 49). In a languagelike Mod. Greek. wherethe passivevoice is actuallymiddle-passive.60 patient and agent may have different or identicalreferents(example49b vs. 49c). (a9) (a) i astinomia6piaseton 8rasti meta apo 6iskoti kata6ioksi. 'The police caught the perpetratorafter a difficult pursuit.' (b) o brastis piastike(apo tin astinomia)meta apo 6iskoli kata6ioksi. 'The perpetratorwas caught (by the police) after a difficult pursuit.' ( c ) o 6 r a s t i sp i a s t i k es t i n p a j i 6 a t i s a s t i n o m i a s . 'The perpetrator caught himself in the trap of the police.' The differentdiathesesbetweenthe semanticroles of agent and patient and the syntactic func tions of subjectand object resultin typical syntacticstructuresfor the differentvoices.6r Forms of the verb which are determinedwith respectto tense,aspect,mood. and especially person and number, are called finite and the rest non-finite.The inflectional paradigm of the verb consistsof finite forms, such as speaks,spoke,and non-finiteforms of the conjugatedverb combined with finite forms of an auxiliary. as in has spoken,n,ill speak.62There can be no doubt as to the inflectionalstatus of finite verb forms. for they possessthe most important characteristics of inflectionalcategories.Conjugationalrules are highly productive,i.e.theyare almostall applicableto the entireset of verbs.Furthermore, the finite verb forms constitutea closedsystemof forms which relieson the two principlescharacteristicof the inflectionalparadigm,namely,constantproportionalityof Thus. one and the same expressionand contentand correlationof grammaticalfeatures.6l meaning dilferencecorrespondsto the formal differencesof the pairs of forms in (50). whereasthe pairs in (51) sharea certainnumber of grammaticalfeaturesbut contrastin another. (50) aTapo: ayapisa: yrafo : eYrafa: kimame: kimomuna ' I l o v e : I l o v e d : I w r i t e : I w r o t e : I s l e e p :I s l e p t ' 'I love: you love' (51) (a) ayapo: ayap6s 'l love: I am loved' (b) ayapo: ayapi6me The forms in (5la) sharethe categoriesof tense.aspect.voice.mood. and number.but dif fer in person,whereasthosein (5lb) shareperson.number,tense.aspect.and mood. but differ in voice. Finite verb forms can be substitutedby morphologicallysimpleronesonly if the latter possessthe same grammaticalinformation and are thereforeof the same grammatical complexity.As an example,the trimorphemicGerman form red-et-eof sentence(52a) may be substitutedby the monomorphemicform sprach in (52b) only becauseit ex- 6 0 C f . M i r a m b e l( 1 9 4 9 : 1 1 9 a ) n d B a b i n i o t i s / K o n d o( s1 9 6 7 : 1 5 5 ) . 6r Cf. Grundzilge, pp.540f. 6 7 L a n g u a g e sd i f f e r i n t h e e x t e n tt o w h i c h t h e v m a k e u s e o f p e r i p h r a s t i cv e r b f o r m s . T h e s em a 1 ' . , : ' n, e w r l l s p e a k. a l s o b e f o r m e d b y m e a n s o f p a r t i c l e ss u c h a s M o d . G r e e k O a i n O a m r l r s t 6-r Cf. above and fn. 19. 48 U. Stephany/ Inflectional and lexical morphology pressesthe same contextuallyrelevantgrammaticalinformation,namely. l.PS.SG and PAST. (52) (a) Ich red-et- e gestern mit ihm. I t a l k - P A S T - l . S Gy e s t e r d a yt o h i m 'I talked to him yesterday.' (b) Ich sprach gesternmit ihm. speak:PAST.I.SG 'I spoke to him yesterday.' 5.2. Non-finite Verb Forms The non-finite verb forms, infinitive and participle,share the characteristicsof the paradigm.Insofar as they enterinto periphrasticalverb forms, they doubtlesslybelongto the conjugationalparadigm of the verb. Contrary to finite verb forms. the non-finiteones representverbal informationwithout actualizingit in concretesentences referringto actual speechsituations.For this reasonnon-finiteverb forms can be usedoutsidethe verbal predicate and function as nouns or adjectives.6a Let us first considerthe German infinitive (example53). (53) (a) Maria sah ihn augenblicklichdie Bremsebedienen. Mary saw him instantaneouslythe brake operate. 'Mary saw him instantaneouslyoperatethe brake.' (b) Sein augenblicklich-es Bedienen der his instantaneous-NOM.SG.N operatethe:GEN.SG.M Bremseverhritetedas Schlimmste. 'His instantaneousoperatingof the brake preventedthe worst.' The infinitive clauseihn augenblicklichdie Bremse bedienenin (53a) functions as the object constituentof the superordinate clause.Although the inlnitive clauseis a nominalized sentenceform,65its verb preservesthe syntacriccharacteristics of a verb: it takes a direct In contradistinctionto this the infinitivein (53b) object and is modifiedby an adverb.66 has becomea verbal noun. Morphological,syntactic,and semanticevidencemay be invoked to prove that we have a case of conversionhere, i.e. of transferinto a different worclclassu'ithout rnorphologicalchanges.6? As a verbalnoun the infinitiveswitchesover to the inflectional paradigrn of the noun. Its inflection is limited to case inflection, 64 o) 66 O n G e r m a n c f . B r i n k m a n n ( 1 9 7 1 : 2 6 4 f ) a n d G r u n d z i t g e ,p . 4 9 8 . C f . L e h m a n n( 1 9 8 2 ) . O n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i cos f t h e G e r m a n i n f i n i t i v ea n d m o r e g e n e r a l l yo f t h e n o n - f i n i t ef o r m s o f t h e G e r m a n v e r b c f . B r i n k m a n n( 1 9 7 1 : 2 6 2 f f i . O n c o n v e r s i o ni n G e r m a n c f . F l e i s c h e r( 1 9 7 , s : 7 4 f fa) n d P l a n k ( 1 9 8 i ) . U. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology however, for verbal nouns may not be pluralized.In sentence(53b) the verbal noun Bedienenis in the nominative.In the genitivecaseit takesthe inflectionalending-s (example 54). (54) Aufgrund sein- es augenblicklich-en Bedienby POSS.3.SG-GEN.SG.N i n s t a n t a n e o uG s -E N . S G . N o p e r a t e en- s der Bremsewurde das Schlimmsteverhtitet. I N F - G E N . S G . N o f . t h eb r a k e 'By his instantaneous operatingof the brake the worst was prevented.' Syntacticallythe verbal noun may take a determiner,such as the possessive adjectivein (53b). It is no longer modifiedby an adverbbut by an attributiveadjectiveagreeingwith the headof the noun phrasein case,number,and gender.Likewise,the directobjectcomplementof (53a) has been replacedby a genitiveattribute in (53b). Semanticallyverbalnounsmay deviateto a greateror lesserdegreefrom the respective verbs. Sentence(53b) may be paraphrasedby (55), where the noun phrasehaving the nominalized infinitive as its head has been replacedby a conjunctional sentencewith a finite verb form. (55) Dadurch daB er augenblicklichdie Bremsebediente, by that he instantaneouslythe brake operated wurde das Schlimmsteverhiitet. 'By his operating the brake instantaneouslythe worst was prevented.' The verbal noun Vermbgenin (56a) denotesa state and the sentencemay be paraphrased by (56b) containing a finite form of the verb verm'ogenin much the same way as (5a) is paraphrasedbV (55). Matters are different with (56c), however.Here Vermiigendenotes concrete objects. Its meaning differs from that of the verb to such a degree that a paraphraselike (56d) is no longer possible.Verb and noun are definitelyseparatelexical items in this case. (56) (a) Er stellte wiederholt Vermbg-en, sein schwierige put hc repeatedly his be.able-INF diffrcult Situationen zu meistern, unter Beweis. situations to master under proof 'He repeatedly proved his ability to cope with difficult situations.' (b) Er bewies wiederholt. daB er es vermoch-te, he proved repeatedlythat he it be.able-3.SG.PRT schwierigeSituationenzu meistern. 'He repeatedlyproved that he was able to cope with difficult situations.' (c) Der miBratene Sohn verpraBte das gesamte Vermbgen the wayward son squanderedthe entire fortune seinesVater-s. of. his father-GEN "The wayward son squanderedhis father's entire fortune". (d) *Der miBratene Sohn verpraBte alles, was sein Vater vermochte. *The wayward son squanderedeverythinghis father was able to 50 U. Stephany/ Inflectional and lexical morphology We may conclude our discussion of the German infinitive by stating that it incorThe verbal noun, on the other hand, has to porates both verbal and nominal potential.6E derivative. a deverbal be considered The study of the other non-finite forms of the verb, the participles,yields observations similar to those of the infinitive. Whereasin English both presentand past participle participate in the formation of f-rniteverb forms by periphrasticmeans,in German this is only true of the past participle (example 57). (57) (a) He is operating the brake. (b) He had operated the brake. (b') Er hatte die Bremse bedient.6e In example (58) the German present participle genilgend and the past participle unverkauft function as adjectives. (58) (a) Der Schi.ilererbrachte keine genilgendenLeistungen. 'The student did not obtain satisfying results.' (b) Zu Ende der Saison befand sich noch ein hoher Prozentsatz unverkaufter Ware am Lager. 'At the end of the seasona high percentageof unsold merchandisewas still in stock.' 'verbal adjectives'.They are For this reason the participlesare sometimesreferredto as inflected according to the adjectival paradigm and may occupy the position of other adjectives in the sentence,function as nominal attributes and agree with the head of the noun phrase in case,number, and gender.Some participlesmay undergo comparisonby the same suffixation procedure as is true of adjectives(example 59). Erkldrung ere (59) (a) eine iiberzeug-enda convince-PRS.PART-COMP-NOM.SG.F explanation 'a more convincing exPlanation' e ert(b) eine gemiiBig- Haltung Attitudc A PAST.PART.MOdCTAtC-PAST.PART-COMP-NOM.SG.F 'a more moderate attitude' The adjectival function of participleseven extendsto their derivational potential. Some participlesmay form derivativeswith un-, a derivationalprefix otherwiselimited to adjectival and substantivalbases(cf.unverkauftin 58b and 60).'t'heyalso form compounds,a derivationaltechniqueuntypical of verbs in German (example6l).to 6 E C f . a l s o A d m o n i ( 1 9 6 6 : 1 6 3 ) ,B r i n k m a n n( 1 9 7 1 : 2 6 5 ) ,a n d P a l m e r ( 1 9 7 4 : 1 7 4 n . 6e The German sentence corresponding to (57a), Er bedient die Bremse, contains the nonperiphrastic present form. 70 On deverbal derivation cf. Walter (1916) and also Brinkmann (19'71:265f1). U. Stephany / lnflectional and lexical morphology 51 (60t ta) ungeniigendeLeistungendissatisfyingresults' 'rude fellow' (b) ungehobelter Klotz log not.planed 'time-consumingtask' (61) (a) zeitraubendeArbeit 'full-length event' (b) abendftillende Veranstaltung evening.filling event 'look full of hate' (c) haBerftillter Blick look hate.filled The character of the participle as a mittelwort betweenthe classesof verbs and adjectives is even more apparent in example(62), where the past participle of auszeichnen'to mark, distinguish' is more like a verb in (62a), but more like an adjective in (62b). (62)" (a) ein gestern/am Arbeitsplatz ausgezeichneterVorschlag 'a proposal distinguishedyesterdaylat work' (b) ein wirklich ausgezeichneterVorschlag 'a really outstanding ProPosal' In the forms of the so-called stative passivethe adjectival character of the past participle may predominate to such a degreethat these oonsfuctionshave to be considered as syntactic phrases consisting of a copula and predicative rather than as periphrastical verb forms. This is the casein sentence(63a), which also semanticallyparallelssentence(63b) containing a true adjective in place of the participle.T2 (63) (a) Der Saal ist beleuchtet. 'The hall is lit up.' 'The hall is light.' (b) Der Saal ist hell. As we have shown, finite and non-finite verb forms differ radically. While the former are conjugated,i.e.ChangeaCCordingto person,number, tense,aspect,mood, and voice, the latter participate in the conjugation of the verb only in conjunction with an auxiliary. The infinitive expressesthe meaning of the verb as such. The present and past participles have imperfective and perfective aspectual meaning respectively.T3Outside the conjugational paradigm of the verb the non-finite verb forms may take over nominal functions and may more or lesscompletelypassinto the word classesof nouns and adjectives. The non-finite verb forms are thus mixed forms: "They are on the whole nominal and verbal at the same time".7a ?r Example (61) is taken from Grundziige, p. 559. 12 Cf. Grundzilge, pp.462 and 558ff. 13 On German cf. Brinkmann (1971:264f) and Grundzilge, p.567. 14 Admoni (1966:163). 52 U. Stephany / Inflectionasl and lexical morphology 6. Inflectional and Lexical Morphology as a Scaled Continuum of Grammaticalization The study of some of the linguistic categoriespertaining to the major lexical classesof nouns, adjectives,and verbs has shown that languagesdiffer in the degreeto which they grammaticalizesuch categoriesand, above all, that rather than fully belongingto inflectional or to lexical morphology such categoriesshow a more or lesspronouncedtendency toward one or the other domain. The transition from inflection to derivation is not abrupt but gradual. Lexical and inflectionalmorphology form a scaledcontinuum with respectto grammaticalization.The upper and lower ends of this scaleof grammaticalizationcan be characterizedas the poles of maximum concretenessor materiality and of maximum abstractnessor relationality respectively.T5 The gradual differencesbetweenlexical and inflectionalphenomenado not defy precise Such a gramdescription;however the theoreticalmodel must be appropriatelychosen.76 matical theory must allow for the representationof intermediateforms, of forms of ambivalent categorical status, and of category overlap. For this to be possible rhe model must above all admit of category membership"/o e degree"l7 and make it possibleto state in ",hich respect an entity belongs to a certain category. In order to determine the degree to which a certain linguistic category is grammaticalized in a language, it is necessary to consider its behavior on a number of parameters,each of which is ideally quantifiable.Lacking exact quantificationof any of the categoriesto be examinedon any of the parametersused,the classificationspresented in tables(1) and (2) shouldbe consideredhighly rentative.Maximum and minimum grammaticalization on a given parameter are symbolized by I and 0 respectivelyand intermediate values are put in parentheses. Let us first illustrate this kind of descriptionby a comparisonof the degreesof grammaticalization of some linguistic categoriesof German. -bar MOTION COMP GEND NUMB CASE C/N/G P , o b l i g a t o r ye x p r e s s i o n 0 Pragreement 0 P , p e r i p h e r apl o s i t i o n 0 (0) Po productivity P . c o n s r .p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y ( l ) P ^ r v o r d - c l a s s c o n s e r v a t i o0n Prrnorphol.techniques I 0 0 0 (0) I | l ADJNNNADJ (0) I 0 (l) (l) ( l) I (0) (0) (0) I (l) I (0) (l) I (1) (l) I I I I 1 I I I I (l) (l) -l I I l I I I grammaticalization T a h l c l . D c g r e c os f g r a r r r r n a t i c a l i z aot fi ol inn g u i s t icca t e g o r i ei ns G c r n r a n . 1 5 C f . S a p i r ( 1 9 2I : c h . 5 ) a n d P l a n k ( 1 9 8I : I 7 ) . 't6 F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o no f t h e d e s c r i p t i o no f l i n g u i s t i cc o n t i n u ac f . H o l e n s t e i n( 1 9 8 0 )a n d W a l t e r ( 1 9 8 1 : c h . 6 )a n d t h e r e f e r e n c e sc i t e d i n t h e s e w o r k s . 1 1 R o s s( 1 9 7 3 : 1 8 8 ) . 53 U. Ste.phany/ Inflectional and hexical morphology As shown in table (l), the category of casein the noun as well as the adjectivalformatives indicating case, number, and gender each score maximum values on all but one of the seven parameters chosen: obligatory expression (P,), use for agreement (Pr), peripheral position of formatives (Pr), rule productivity (Pn), constant proportionality of expression and content (Pr), word-classconservation(Pe),and expressionby morphological means (Pr). Expression of case, number, and gender is obligatory in the adjective except when used predicatively (cf. examples 15 and 17 above). With nouns case is sometimesexpressed syntactically, namely by the form of the determiner, rather than by the form of 'the mother' NOM/ACC.SG vs. der Mutter the noun itself (e.5. die Mutter proceeds from right to left in table (l), the number of maximal GEN/DAT.SG). As one values gradually decreaseswith a corresponding increasein minimal values. While number and gender of the noun and comparison of the adjective are characterizedby a number of intermediate values, motion and the derivational suflix -bar'-ablel-ible' (as in waschbar'washable') are sharply distinguished from gender, number, and case in the noun and adjective on the first three parameters and from comparison on two of these. Although motional formations and derivatives in -bar are both usually consideredas lexical, table (1) shows that there are differencesbetween them, at least as far as conservation of word class (P) and constant proportionality of expression and content (Pr) are concerned. Of the seven parameters used, P, through P, are more important than Pu and P, for the determination of degree of grammaticalization and hence the attribution of linguistic categories to the inflectional rather than to the lexical domain. P, obligatory expression P, agreement P, morphol techniques Po word-plassconservation P, productivity of Pl.-rule Pu const. proportionality CLASS.TIBETAN 0 0 0 NOOTKA 0l GERMAN (l) (l) I (l) I I I (l) I I I 0l --i'-"""- grammatic alization Table2. Degrees of grammaticalization of numberin Class.Tibetan,Nootka,and German. In table (2) the same method of description has been applied to inter-languagecomparison of the category of number. Again, a graded scale of grammaticalizationis obtained according to which number is most strongly grammatic alizedin German and least so in class. Tibetan, with Nootka occupying an intermediate position. In this paper we have presentedevidence for the gradual nature of the transition betwen the domains of lexical and inflectional morphology and in the face of this tried to indicate a way of giving a precise description of the resulting linguistic continua. The recognition of such linguistic continua is not only fundamental for an adequate syn- 54 U. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology chronic view of languages and for typological comparison but also for understanding diachronic changes in grammaticalization. Ursula Stephany I nstitut ftir S prachwissenschaft, Universitcit zu Kriln, 5000 Kdln 41, W. Deutschland References A d m o n i , V . G . 1 9 6 6 , D e r d e u t s c h eS p r a c h b a u .L e n i n g r a d , 2 n d e d . A r o n o f f , M . 1 9 7 6 , W o r d F o r m a t i o n i n G e n e r a t i v eG r a m m a r . C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : M I T P r e s s . skiseis. B a b i n i o t i s ,G . & K o n d o s , P . 1 9 6 7 ,S i n x r o n i k ig r a m m a t i k i t i s k o i n i s n e a se l l i n i k i s : T h e o r i a a Athens. B e n v e n i s t eE, . l 9 6 6 , " F o r m e s n o u v e l l e sd e l a c o m p o s i t i o nn o m i n a l e . "B S L 4 l : 1 . 8 2 - 9 5 B i e r m a n n ,A . l 9 8 2 , " D i e g r a m m a t i s c h eK a t e g o r i eN u m e r u s . " I n : S e i l e r / L e h m a n n ( e d s .1) 9 8 2 : 2 2 9 243 B l o o m f i e l d ,L . 1 9 3 3 , L a n g u a g e .N e w Y o r k : H o l t R i n e h a r t & W i n s t o n B o l i n g e r , D . 1 9 7 5 , A s p e c t s o f L a n g u a g e .N e w Y o r k : H a r c o u r t B r a c e J o v a n o v i c h ,2 n d e d . B r i n k m a n n , H . l 9 ' 1 1 , D i e d e u t s c h eS p r a c h e : G e s t a l t u n d L e i s t u n g . D r i s s e l d o r f :P d d a g o g i s c h e r V e r l a g S c h w a n n ,2 n d e d . B r o w n , R . 1 9 5 8 , W o r d s a n d T h i n g s . G l e n c o e ,I I I . C o m r i e .B . 1 9 8 1 ,L a n g u a g eU n i v e r s a l sa n d L i n g u i s t i cT y p o l o g y : S y n t a xa n d M o r p h o l o g y .O x f o r d : Basil Blackwell e .t i b i n g e n : M a x N i e m e y e r , 4 t h F l e i s c h e rW . . 1 9 7 5 ,W o r t b i l d u n gd e r d e u t s c h e nG e g e n w a r t s s p r a c h T ed. G r u n d z r i g e e i n e r d e u t s c h e nG r a m m a t i k . B y a c o l l e c t i v eo f a u t h o r s u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f K . E . H e i d o l p h . W . F l i i m i g . a n d W . M o t s c h . B e r l i n : A k a d e m i e - V e r l a g .l 9 8 l H e i n e . B . 1 9 8 2 . " A f r i c a n N o u n C l a s s S y s t e m s . " I n : S e i l e r / L e h m a n n( e d s . ) 1 9 8 2 : 1 8 9 - 2 1 6 H o l e n s t e i n .E . l g 8 0 . " S p r a c h l i c h eK o n t i n u a s i n d a n i s o t r o p u n d s k a l i e r t . " I n : W e g e z u r U n i v e r s a l i e n f o s c h u n gS: p r a c h w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c hBee i t r i i g ez u m 6 0 . G e b u r t s t a gv o n H a n s j a k o b S e i l e r . E d . b y G . B r e t t s c h n e i d e r& C . L e h m a n n . T r i b i n g e n : G u n t e r N a r r ( T t i b i n g e r B e i t r d g e z u r L i n g u i s t i k ,1 4 5 ) : p p . 5 0 4 - 5 0 8 . K a t s i n a v a k i s .E . i n p r e p . . N o m i n a l D e t e r m i n a t i o na s a D i m e n s i o n i n M o d . G r e e k . D o c t . d i s s . . Philosophische Fakultdt. Univ. of Cologne. K u r y l o w i c z . J . 1 9 4 9 , " L e p r o b l e m e d u c l a s s e m e n td e s c a s . " B i u l e t y n P o l s k i e g oT o w a r z y s t w a . rocJ g z y k o z n a w c z e g o9 . 2 0 - 4 3 . R e p r i n t e di n : J . K u r y l o w i c z , 1 9 6 0 , E s q u i s s e sl i n g u i s t i q u e sW l a w & K r a k o w ( P r a c eJ g z y k o z n a w c z el ,9 ) l p p . l 3 l - 1 5 0 . Langacker. R.W. l9'72. Fundamentalsof Linguistic Analysis. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. L e h m a n n ,C . 1 9 8 2 ," N o m i n a l i s i e r u n gT: y p i s i e r u n gv o n P r o p o s i t i o n e n .I "n : S e i l e r / L e h m a n(ne d s . ) I982:66-83. L e h m a n n .C . f o r t h c o m i n g ," U n i v e r s a l a n d T y p o l o g i c a lA s p e c t so f A g r e e m e n t . "I n : H . S e i l e r& C . : a s s p r a c h l i c h eE r f a s s e nv o n G e g e n s t i i n d e nP. a r t L e h m a n n( e d s . ) .f o r t h c o m i n g .A p p r e h e n s i o n D I I : D i e T e c h n i k e n u n d i h r Z u s a m m e n h a n g i n E i n z e l s p r a c h e n .T i . i b i n g e n : G u n t e r N a r r ( L a n g u a g e U n i v e r s a l sS e r i e s .l ) . Lehmann. C. in prep.. "Grammaticalization." In: H. Seiler & C. Lehmann (eds.),in prep., A p p r e h e n s i o n :D a s s p r a c h l i c h eE r f a s s e nv o n G e g e n s t i i n d e nP. a r t I I I : D i e D i m e n s i o n : T h e o r i e U. Stephany / Inflectional and lexical morphology 55 und Methodologie. Ttibingen: Gunter Narr (Language Universals Series, l)' L y o n s , J . 1 9 6 8 , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o T h e o r e t i c a lL i n g u i s t i c s .C a m b r i d g e : C U P ' L y o n s , J . 1 9 7 7 , S e m a n t i c s .2 v o l s ' C a m b r i d g e : C U P . M a l k i e l , y . l g T S , " D e r i v a t i o n a l C a t e g o r i e s . "I n : J . G r e e n b e r g( e d . ) , 1 9 7 8 , U n i v e r s a l so f H u m a n L a n g u a g e .S t a n f o r d : S t a n f o r d U n i v . P r e s s ; v o l ' 3 : 1 2 5 - 1 4 9 ' M a t t h e w s ,P . H . l g 1 4 , M o r p h o l o g y : A n I n t r o d u c t i o nt o t h e T h e o r y o f W o r d S t r u c t u r e .C a m b r i d g e : CUP. Mirambel, A. 1949, Grammaire du grec moderne' Paris' LeMotsch. W. l9??, "Ein Plddoyer ftir die Beschreibungvon Wortbildung auf der Grundlage des der ( e d s . ) , P e r s p e k t i v e n 1 9 7 ' ' l , K a s t o v s k y D . Brekle & H.E. xikons." In: 1916. 9.-l0.Juli Wortbildungskolloquium Wuppertaler zum Beitrige Wortbildungsforschung. Bonn; pp.l80-202. N i d a , E . A . 1 9 4 9 , M o r p h o l o g y : T h e D e s c r i p t i v eA n a l y s i s o f w o r d s . A n n A r b o r ' O s t r o w s k i , M . 1 9 8 2 , " Z u m K o n z e p t d e r K o n g r u e n z . " I n : S e i l e r / L e h m a n n( e d s . ) 1 9 8 2 : 2 5 2 - 2 6 9 . Palmer, F.R. 1974,The English Verb' London. p l a n k , F . 1 9 8 1 , M o r p h o l o g i s c h e( I r - ) R e g u l a r i t i i t e n A : s p e k t e d e r W o r t s t r u k t u r t h e o r i eT. i i b i n g e n : Gunter Narr (Studien zur deutschen Grammatik, l3)' R o s s .J . R . l 9 7 3 , " N o u n i n e s s " .I n : O . F u j i m u r a ( e d . ) ,1 9 7 3 ,T h r e e D i m e n s i o n so f L i n g u i s t i cT h e o r y . T o k y o ; p p . l 3 1 - 2 5 7. Sapir, E. 1921, Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech' New York. S e i l e r ,H . l 9 6 6 , " D a s P a r a d i g m ai n a l t e r u n d n e u e r S i c h t . " K r a t y l o s l l . l 9 0 - 2 0 5 ' S e i l e r ,H . I g 6 ' l , " O n P a r a d i g m a t i ca n d S y n t a g m a t i cS i m i l a r i t y . " L i n g u a l 8 ' 3 5 - 7 9 ' n e n e n n u n g . "I n : H . S e i l e r S e i l e r ,H . l 9 7 5 , " D i e P r i n z i p i e nd e r d e s k r i p t i v e nu n d d e r e t i k e t t i e r e n d e B ( e d . ) , l g i 5 , L i n g u i s t i c W o r k s h o p I I I : A r b e i t e n d e s K c i l n e r U n i v e r s a l i e n p r o j e k t s1 9 7 4 . M r i n c h e n : W i l h e l m F i n k ( S t r u c t u r a ,9 ) ; p p . 2 - 5 7 ' Seiler, H. lglgl80, Sprachtypologie,Univ. of Cologne: Inst.f. Sprachwissenschaft,ms. 1982, "Das sprachliche Erfassen von Gegenstiinden (Apprehension)." In: Seiler, H. S e i l e r / L e h m a n n( e d s . ) 1 9 8 2 : 3 - ll . S e i l e r .H & L e h m a n n ,C . ( e d s . ) 1 9 8 2 ,A p p r e h e n s i o n :D a s ' s p r a c h l i c h eE r f a s s e nv o n G e g e n s t e n d e n . p a r t I : B e r e i c hu n d O r d n u n g d e r P h i i n o m e n e T . t i b i n g e n :G u n t e r N a r r ( L a n g u a g eU n i v e r s a l s S e r i e s .l ) . S e r z i s k o .F . 1 9 8 1 , " G e n d e r , N o u n C l a s s , a n d N u m e r a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n :A S c a l eo f C l a s s i f i c a t o r y Techniques." akup 40.g3-126 (Arbeiten des Kcjlner Universalienprojekts. Inst. f. S p r a c h w i s s e n s c h a fU t ,n i v . o f C o l o g n e ) . LonTucker, A.N. & Mpaayei, J. Tompo Ole 1955, A Maasai Grammar, with Vocabulary. don/New York/Toronto: Longmans. Inst. i. U n t e r m a n n , J . l g 7 g , " D i e A u s b i l d u n g d e s G e n u s s y s t e m si m I n d o g e r m a n i s c h e n ' " S p r a c h w i s s e n s c h a fU t ,n i v . o f C o l o g n e ' l e c t u r e . l e u t s c h e rV e r b a l d e r i v a t i o na' k u p 2 6 W a l t e r , H . l g j 6 , Z u m P r o b l e md e r D e s k r i p t i v i t i i ta m B e i s p i e d f . S p r a c h w i s s e n s c h a fU t .n i v ' o f C o l o g n e ) . I n s t . (Arbeiten des Kcilner Universalienprojekts. r i c h t .M t i n c h e n : W i l h e l m W a l t e r . H . 1 9 8 1 ,S t u d i e nz u r N o m e n - V e r b - D i s t i n k t i o na u s t y p o l o g i s c h e S Fink (Structura, I 3). In: W a l t e r , H . l 9 8 2 , " G e n u s - u n d N o m i n a l k l a s s e n s y s t e muen d d i e D i m e n s i o nd e r A p p r e h e n s i o n . " Seiler/Lehmann (eds.) 1982:211-228