Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Evaluating a Speaker’s Reasoning An important part of being an effective listener is evaluating a speaker’s reasoning or logical thinking. Faulty Reasoning may sound like contradiction, but it is all too common. Statements that seem reasonable, even well reasoned, are very often based on mistakes in logic. Good listeners know that even when supporting details are precise and accurate, the conclusions drawn from them may be illogical. You should be able to recognize several types of faulty reasoning. Hasty Generalizations Generalizations are general conclusions or opinions drawn from a particular observation. Valid Generalizations are based on sufficient evidence and carry required qualifying words like most, some, and generally. Hasty Generalizations are conclusions or opinions that are drawn from very few observations or that ignore exceptions. Example: Seeing John turn his paper in late today, a classmate might make the hasty generalization that John never turns his work in on time. Analysis: Today may be the only time John has turned in a paper late. Basing a conclusion on only one observation is faulty reasoning. Begging the Question Begging the question means assuming the truth of a statement before it is proven. Listeners must be careful to see that speakers have actually proven what they claim is fact. Example: A speaker says, “With my plan, this country’s failed and ineffective health care system can be remedied in a decade.” Analysis: The speaker has given no proof that the country’s health care system is an ineffective failure. False Premise A premise is a stated or implied starting point for an argument. A false premise is a premise that is untrue or distorted. Example: We’re bound to have a winning team this year. Five of our starters are back. Analysis: This statement is built on the premise that experience ensures skill and success. This is not necessarily true (what if the five returning players are mediocre?), so you cannot conclude that the team will automatically have a winning season this year. False Analogy An analogy is a form of reasoning by comparison. A good analogy draws valid conclusions from items that can be logically compared. A false analogy draws invalid conclusions from weak or often farfetched comparisons. Example: A band member says to a friend, “I wish you’d learn to play the saxophone so you could join the marching band. Since you play the violin so well. I’m sure you could learn the sax easily.” Analysis: The speaker’s reasoning is based on a false analogy. Playing a violin well does not ensure that one can also play a saxophone well; both instruments and the skills needed to play them are very different. Irrelevant Evidence Irrelevant evidence is information that has nothing to do with the argument being made. The evidence may sound impressive, but unless it is relates to the point at hand, you should ignore it. Example: The merchandise at the Ultra Store is top quality. The manager has clothes shipped in from all over the world. Analysis: The fact that the clothes come from all over the world is an irrelevant detail that does not support the conclusion that the merchandise is top quality. The manager could be searching worldwide for cheap goods. Persuasion is the attempt to convince others to do something or to change a belief of their own free will. Propaganda is persuasion that deliberately discourages people from thinking for themselves. Because its sole purpose is to spread information and claims that further – or destroy- a cause, idea, product, or person, propaganda at its worst relies on one-sided or distorted arguments. Transfer Transfer is a method that builds a connection between things that are not logically connected. In advertising, this connection is built between a product and a positive value. Good listeners demand that the link between these things be supported by evidence. Example: An advertisement might show a prosperous, happy, loving family drinking a certain brand of milk. The goal of the transfer technique is to get the viewer to associate the brand of the milk with prosperity, happiness, and love. Bandwagon The bandwagon technique encourages people to act because everyone else is doing it. Bandwagon attempts to substitute peer or crowd pressure for analysis of an issue or action. Good listeners insist that the speaker give support for the call to action. Example: Someone says that you should vote for a proposal because all your friends are voting for it; however, no one mentions why the proposal is worth supporting. Name-Calling Name-calling is labeling intended to arouse powerful negative feelings. Its purpose is to represent a particular person or group as inferior or bad without providing evidence to support the claim. Good listeners look beyond labels and ask for evidence to back up the speaker’s position. Example: A speaker might ask you to vote against a candidate because that candidate is “a warmonger,” “a tree hugger,” “a preppie,” or “an egghead.” Card-Stacking Card-stacking is based on half-truths. It presents only parital information in order to leave an inaccurate impression. All effective speakers emphasize information that supports their viewpoint. Good listeners withhold judgement until they hear the supporting details or the case for the other side. Example: A speaker might refer to a person who has amassed a fortune through intimidation and illegal means as a “good breadwinner.” This phrase tells only part of the story since it ignores the negative methods the person used to become a “good breadwinner.” Stereotypes A stereotype is a biased belief about a whole group of people based on insufficient or irrelevant evidence. A stereotype ignores the individual. Good listeners reject stereotypes and demand specific information. Example: A co-worker might say, “Surely you don’t plan to discuss the issue with the president of the company! Presidents are too interested in profit and personal gain to care about the problems of a single employee.” Loaded Words Loaded words evoke, or draw out, very strong positive or negative attitudes toward a person, group, or idea. They can be powerful in their ability to create bias, a leaning toward a particulate point of view. This is where the difference between the connotation and denotation of words is extremely important. Good listeners carefully evaluate the connotations and denotations of words. Example: In discussing assertive behavior, Julie describes herself as “confident,” David as “pushy,” and Rita as a “braggart.” Although the behavior described is exactly the same, the use of the loaded words make Julie’s behavior seem positive, Chris’s behavior seem negative, and Rita’s behavior seem worst. Emotional Appeals Emotional appeals, or statements used to arouse emotional reactions, can be appropriately used in persuasion. However, when emotional appeals distort the truth or provoke irrational desires and fears, they become propaganda techniques. Good listeners respond to emotional appeals but demand support for any conclusion presented. Example: To gain support for the local humane society, a speaker might tell moving stories about the disposal of animals because of limited resources. People who want to help animals would probably respond emotionally to these specific examples. Activity Four Watch TV for one hour and record the commercials you see. Keep track of the product, cause, idea, or person that is the focus of the commercial. Write down which form of propaganda was used. Pick three of the commercials and write a short three or four sentences about your reaction to these commercials. Was your reaction positive or negative? Did you have a different reaction now that you know what advertisers are using to get a response from consumers? What made you choose this commercial as your top three? This will be due on Tuesday, Oct. 11. Be ready to discuss your findings in class that day!