Download Faulty Reasoning

Evaluating a Speaker’s
Reasoning
An important part of being an effective listener
is evaluating a speaker’s reasoning or logical
thinking.
Faulty Reasoning may sound
like contradiction, but it is all
too common. Statements that
seem reasonable, even well
reasoned, are very often based
on mistakes in logic.
Good listeners know that even
when supporting details are
precise and accurate, the
conclusions drawn from them
may be illogical. You should be
able to recognize several types
of faulty reasoning.
Hasty Generalizations

Generalizations are general conclusions or opinions drawn
from a particular observation.

Valid Generalizations are based on sufficient evidence and carry
required qualifying words like most, some, and generally.

Hasty Generalizations are conclusions or opinions that are drawn
from very few observations or that ignore exceptions.
 Example:
Seeing John turn his paper in late today, a classmate might
make the hasty generalization that John never turns his work in on
time.
 Analysis:
Today may be the only time John has turned in a paper
late. Basing a conclusion on only one observation is faulty reasoning.
Begging the Question

Begging the question means assuming the truth of a statement
before it is proven. Listeners must be careful to see that
speakers have actually proven what they claim is fact.
 Example: A
speaker says, “With my plan, this country’s failed and
ineffective health care system can be remedied in a decade.”
 Analysis:
The speaker has given no proof that the country’s health
care system is an ineffective failure.
False Premise

A premise is a stated or implied starting point for an
argument.

A false premise is a premise that is untrue or distorted.
 Example:
We’re bound to have a winning team this year. Five of our
starters are back.
 Analysis:
This statement is built on the premise that experience
ensures skill and success. This is not necessarily true (what if the
five returning players are mediocre?), so you cannot conclude that
the team will automatically have a winning season this year.
False Analogy

An analogy is a form of reasoning by comparison. A good
analogy draws valid conclusions from items that can be
logically compared.

A false analogy draws invalid conclusions from weak or often
farfetched comparisons.
 Example: A
band member says to a friend, “I wish you’d learn to play
the saxophone so you could join the marching band. Since you play
the violin so well. I’m sure you could learn the sax easily.”
 Analysis:
The speaker’s reasoning is based on a false analogy. Playing
a violin well does not ensure that one can also play a saxophone
well; both instruments and the skills needed to play them are very
different.
Irrelevant Evidence

Irrelevant evidence is information that has nothing to do with
the argument being made. The evidence may sound
impressive, but unless it is relates to the point at hand, you
should ignore it.
 Example:
The merchandise at the Ultra Store is top quality. The
manager has clothes shipped in from all over the world.
 Analysis:
The fact that the clothes come from all over the world is
an irrelevant detail that does not support the conclusion that the
merchandise is top quality. The manager could be searching
worldwide for cheap goods.
Persuasion is the attempt to
convince others to do something
or to change a belief of their
own free will.
Propaganda is persuasion that
deliberately discourages people
from thinking for themselves.
Because its sole purpose is to spread information
and claims that further – or destroy- a cause, idea,
product, or person, propaganda at its worst relies
on one-sided or distorted arguments.
Transfer

Transfer is a method that builds a connection between things
that are not logically connected. In advertising, this
connection is built between a product and a positive value.

Good listeners demand that the link between these things be
supported by evidence.
 Example: An
advertisement might show a prosperous, happy, loving
family drinking a certain brand of milk. The goal of the transfer
technique is to get the viewer to associate the brand of the milk
with prosperity, happiness, and love.
Bandwagon

The bandwagon technique encourages people to act because
everyone else is doing it. Bandwagon attempts to substitute
peer or crowd pressure for analysis of an issue or action.

Good listeners insist that the speaker give support for the call
to action.
 Example:
Someone says that you should vote for a proposal because
all your friends are voting for it; however, no one mentions why the
proposal is worth supporting.
Name-Calling

Name-calling is labeling intended to arouse powerful negative
feelings. Its purpose is to represent a particular person or
group as inferior or bad without providing evidence to support
the claim.

Good listeners look beyond labels and ask for evidence to back
up the speaker’s position.
 Example: A
speaker might ask you to vote against a candidate
because that candidate is “a warmonger,” “a tree hugger,” “a
preppie,” or “an egghead.”
Card-Stacking

Card-stacking is based on half-truths. It presents only parital
information in order to leave an inaccurate impression. All
effective speakers emphasize information that supports their
viewpoint.

Good listeners withhold judgement until they hear the
supporting details or the case for the other side.
 Example: A
speaker might refer to a person who has amassed a
fortune through intimidation and illegal means as a “good
breadwinner.” This phrase tells only part of the story since it ignores
the negative methods the person used to become a “good
breadwinner.”
Stereotypes

A stereotype is a biased belief about a whole group of people
based on insufficient or irrelevant evidence. A stereotype
ignores the individual.

Good listeners reject stereotypes and demand specific
information.
 Example: A
co-worker might say, “Surely you don’t plan to discuss
the issue with the president of the company! Presidents are too
interested in profit and personal gain to care about the problems of
a single employee.”
Loaded Words

Loaded words evoke, or draw out, very strong positive or
negative attitudes toward a person, group, or idea. They can
be powerful in their ability to create bias, a leaning toward a
particulate point of view. This is where the difference between
the connotation and denotation of words is extremely
important.

Good listeners carefully evaluate the connotations and
denotations of words.
 Example:
In discussing assertive behavior, Julie describes herself as
“confident,” David as “pushy,” and Rita as a “braggart.” Although
the behavior described is exactly the same, the use of the loaded
words make Julie’s behavior seem positive, Chris’s behavior seem
negative, and Rita’s behavior seem worst.
Emotional Appeals

Emotional appeals, or statements used to arouse emotional
reactions, can be appropriately used in persuasion. However,
when emotional appeals distort the truth or provoke irrational
desires and fears, they become propaganda techniques.

Good listeners respond to emotional appeals but demand
support for any conclusion presented.
 Example:
To gain support for the local humane society, a speaker
might tell moving stories about the disposal of animals because of
limited resources. People who want to help animals would probably
respond emotionally to these specific examples.
Activity Four

Watch TV for one hour and record the commercials you
see.

Keep track of the product, cause, idea, or person that is the
focus of the commercial.

Write down which form of propaganda was used.

Pick three of the commercials and write a short three or
four sentences about your reaction to these commercials.
Was your reaction positive or negative? Did you have a
different reaction now that you know what advertisers are
using to get a response from consumers? What made you
choose this commercial as your top three?

This will be due on Tuesday, Oct. 11. Be ready to discuss
your findings in class that day!