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INEQUALITIES IN GENDER
AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Chapter 9
Gender Inequality: The Problem in
Sociological Perspective
•Gender Inequality and sexism is still pervasive in
our society, therefore it is a social problem
• Sexism refers to the belief that one sex is innately
superior to the other and the discrimination that results
SEX is biological and GENDER is learned. We learn to
“do” gender based on what our culture defines as
normal.
• gender norms and expectations vary from culture to
culture
Major Areas of Gender Inequality in
the U.S.
• Politics
•
Since 1789 nearly 1,900 men have served in the U.S
Senate and only 34 women
• Education
• 100 years ago leading educators believed that a woman’s
womb dominated her mental life
• Economic
• Today women earn 79 cents to every dollar a man makes
• Social
• Images in media and advertising that objectify women
• This relates to politics in this week’s film Miss Representation
The 3 theories and gender: Symbolic
Interactionism
• Sex: the different biological equipment of males and
females
• Gender: how we express our “maleness” or
“femaleness.” To sociologists gender is socially
constructed
• Socialization into gender roles
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Most parents teach gender roles subconsciously
Stereotypes applied at birth tend to become reality
through self-fulfilling prophecy
Symbolic Interactionism: Everyday
Life
Masculinity and machismo represent strength while
femininity is perceived as weakness.
• Derogatory feminine terms
• Most dismiss remarks as insignificant
• Such comments reveal derogatory attitude toward
women and things feminine
• Attitude that women face as part of their everyday
lives
Functionalism
The functionalists work to explain how male dominance has
been “functional” for societies. They propose two theories
1. Rewards for warriors
 innate differences in the physical strength of men and women meant men
made better warriors
 Warfare brought status and power to men; women often became the
reward for men who were successful in battle
 2. Reproduction
 Throughout history, a woman has been encumbered because of child
rearing making her physically unable to participate fully in the labor
market and politics
• Ultimate result was a patriarchal society (that persists)
Conflict Theory
• Principles of Power (male power in this case)
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Power yields privilege.
Privileged lifestyles of powerful encourage them to feel
they are superior beings.
To bolster their feelings of superiority, the powerful
develop ideologies that justify their position.
As the powerful cling to their privileges, they use social
institutions to maintain their power.
The Mass Media
Children’s Books are more than entertainment
• Help to shape gender roles
• Children’s books are still stereotypical (but better than in the past).
•
For
example, research shows that these books still feature twice as many male
characters, women are more likely to be shown indoors, men are shown to be
more active and outdoors, and women are less likely to have an occupation
More powerful than picture books-- In kids’ cartoons women used to be
portrayed as less intelligent, more dependent, and less brave. These images
are changing, although women are still portrayed as more emotional than
men
• Feminists protest stereotypes
• Stereotypes are restrictive because they teach us to have certain
expectations in life. They put limits on what we think is possible
• One gender stereotype continues to linger in children’s books--females are
now portrayed as doing things that males do, but males are rarely portrayed
as doing things that females do.
Mass Media
•
Adult television creates and reinforces stereotypes of
gender, age, and sexuality
• Male characters still vastly outnumber female
characters by 2 to 1.
• Television for adults often depict women as losing their
sex appeal much earlier than men, and 9 out of 10
women on primetime TV are under the age of 46
(hardly a representation of reality)
•
Body image is key part of gender accomplishment


Television is effective in teaching what we “should” look like
Sociologists have found that most females on television are below
average weight. This only feeds a society obsessed with an
unattainable version of femininity.
Mass Media
• Music: research shows that:
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Boys learn to dominate male–female relationships
Lyrics instruct girls to be sexy, passive, and dependent
Those who watch music videos hold more traditional sexrole stereotypes
Rap groups often glorify male sexual aggression and
degrade women
The World of Politics
The current situation

Women vastly underrepresented in political decision making
• Why don’t women dominate politics?
About 8 million more women than men are of voting age
 Women who vote outnumber men who vote by 9 million
 A good answer appears to be socialization, including mass media (see
Miss Representation)
Women and men view dominance as masculine; politics is a form of
dominance; therefore, politics is masculine. This perception imposes severe
restraints on women’s recruitment, participation, and performance in politics.

•
Sex roles are also very powerful. Women are underrepresented in law and business, the
careers of politicians. The irregular hours required to run for elective office is incompatible
with home life responsibilities. Women are also less likely to have a supportive spouse.
The good news is that these restrictive patterns are changing.
Who Controls U.S. Politics?
States with the most and fewest
women in office
The World of Work
• The gender pay gap

At all ages and at all levels of education and no matter the
type of work, the average man is paid more than the
average woman (see the next slide)

Between the ages of 25 and 65, the average man who
graduates from college earns about a million dollars
($1,100,000) more than the average woman who
graduates from college!
The Gender Pay Gap
• Reasons for the gender pay gap
 “Tracking” in education--women are more likely to choose
a major that reflects traditional gender stereotypes
 For example, men are more likely to major in engineering, physics, or business
which typically lead to high paying jobs. Women are more likely to major in
the fine arts, education, and social sciences, which lead to lower paying jobs.
 The jobs with the highest concentration of women are dental hygienist
(98.6%), preschool/kindergarten teacher (97%), admin assistant (97%) and
nurse (94%) –although more men are pursuing a nursing degrees today
because this IS a relatively high paying occupation.
Reasons for the gender pay gap
 Women professionals, such as physicians, work fewer hours than
men in same profession.
 This is often for family reasons, such as to care for an aging parent or a
small child (a traditional role for women)
 One way this can work as a penalty for women is to consider the
promotion process in the workplace. A man may appear more dedicated
to his job and have more experience as a result of not having to take time
off to care for children or parents. Thus, who looks like a better candidate
for the promotion?
 Above factors account for about half the pay gap
 Other half may be attributed to gender discrimination
• The Fuller-Schoenberger Study
 Women had to have higher qualifications than men in order to be
offered lower salaries!
Homosexuality
• Homosexual behavior
 Sexual relations between people of the same sex

Homosexuality is a sexual orientation involving an
attraction or preference for people of one’s own sex
Humans have a long history of homosexual behavior
throughout the world.
• Americans are consistently growing more tolerant of
those practicing full-time homosexuality

These numbers have increased slightly in just in the past few years- and will
continue to do so
• Homosexuals and the law

Until 1960 it was illegal in all states for people of the same sex to engage in sexual
relations. In 2002 Texas and eleven other states still had these laws in effect. However,
that year the Supreme Court in the court case Lawrence et al. vs. Texas struck the laws
down.
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• Hate crimes-ordinary crimes motivated by dislike or hatred
of the victim’s personal characteristics
• Each year 1400 homosexuals are the victims of hate crimes.
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Discrimination in the workplace
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There is no federal law that prohibits employers from discriminating on the basis of
sexual orientation
Some companies and states have anti-discrimination policies that include sexual
orientation, some don’t
A major victory for homosexuals, and for those who support equality for
gays/lesbians, was the the repeal of the “don’t ask don’t tell” policy in September of
2011. Gays and Lesbians are now free to serve openly in the military.
Homosexuality and Conflict Theory
Conflict theorist looks at who holds power, and in this case it is those who identify as
heterosexual
Homosexuals still face overt discrimination
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Differential treatment that is open and observable
Same-sex marriage (SSM)
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Legally sanctioned marriage of two same-sex people
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Defense of Marriage Act
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Currently Holland, Belgium, Canada, Norway, South Africa and Sweden recognize same-sex marriage.
10 U.S. states and the District of Columbia recognize same-sex marriage- however 40 states do not
Domestic partnership or civil union in not a legal marriage and does not carry the same privileges as
marriage
Fearing that civil unions might expand into legal marriage, voters in 26 states passed a constitutional
amendment limiting marriage to one man and one woman. In 1996 congress passed a similar law
called The Defense of Marriage Act. This law effectively denies federal benefits to married people
of the same sex. States, however, can still decide their own rules for marriage
This is a social problem because homosexuals want full legal rights in all areas – legal
marriages in all states and marriage that is recognized by the federal government.
Objective Conditions: Research on
Sexuality in the U.S.

Women
Men
Identify as gay/lesbian
2.3%
2.3%
Identify as bisexual
1.8%
1.8%
Identify as heterosexual
90%
90%
Had homosexual or lesbian experience
11.1%
6%
Had sex with same sex partner in last year
4%
3%
Had sex with same sex partner and opposite sex partner in
last year
3%
1%
Sexually attracted to opposite sex only
86%
92%
Find the fantasy of homosexual or lesbian experience
appealing
5.5%
6%
Source: Mosher, Chandra and Jones (2005)
Homosexuality and the Future
Two primary issues are generating controversy
 Same Sex Marriage
 Homosexuals who want to be open and serve as role
models
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i.e. Public school teachers
Military (this just happened)
Scout leaders
As you noticed on figure 9.3 on slide 20, 71% of young people
between the ages of 18-29 think that homosexual relations
should be legal. As this population ages, homosexuality will
likely become more accepted in our society. We can anticipate
that equality is in the future, although it will continue to be a
struggle
The Future of Gender Relations
• The world of work

As more and more women attend college and seek careers in medicine,
law, and business, we will see less discrimination in the workplace
• Breaking gender stereotypes?
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Increasing numbers of women in the workforce are already changing
gender stereotypes
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•
More men are participating in child care and doing housework, and this is
likely to increase
However depictions of men and women in the media are unequal and
stereotypical- how long will it take for this to change?
New orientations

Ultimate possibility for the future is a new concept of the human
personality

As these gender stereotypes continue to break down, men and women will
feel less restricted by gender norms and more comfortable exploring their
potential as human beings.