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JEADV (2004) 18, 48–51 OR IG INAL AR T ICLE Risk factors associated with onychomycosis Blackwell Publishing Ltd. B Sigurgeirsson,†* Ó Steingrímsson‡ Departments of †Dermatology and ‡Microbiology, University of Iceland and Landspitali, University Hospital, Reykjavik, Iceland. *Corresponding author, Hú,læknastö,in, Smáratorg 1, 200 Kópavogur, Iceland, E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRAC T Objective To examine possible risk factors related to onychomycosis. Background Onychomycosis is a common disease with multifactorial aetiology, but little is known about the risk factors for this disease. Patients and methods Questions related to signs, symptoms and possible risk factors associated with onychomycosis were sent to 3992 persons aged 16 years and older selected randomly from the Icelandic National Registry. Patients with suspected onychomycosis, based on photographs, were offered mycological examination. Data from the questionnaire and the results of mycological examination were used to calculate the odds ratio (OR) for several factors that might be associated with onychomycosis. Results Two thousand four hundred and eighty-six subjects responded to the questionnaire. Prevalence for mycologically determined onychomycosis was 11.1% in the Icelandic population. A history of the following factors more than doubled the risk of onychomycosis: cancer (OR 3.44; 95% CI 1.15–10.35), psoriasis (OR 2.44; 95% CI 1.61–3.72), tinea pedis interdigitalis (OR 3.93; 95% CI 3.11–4.95), the moccasin form of tinea pedis (OR 4.26; 94% CI 3.34–5.45), parents with onychomycosis (OR 2.59; 95% CI 1.89–3.53), children with onychomycosis (OR 3.48; 95% CI 2.05–5.88), spouse with onychomycosis (OR 2.53; 95% CI 1.72– 3.72), regular swimming activity (OR 2.57; 95% CI 2.00–3.30) and age 50 years or older (OR 2.74; 95% CI 2.19–3.42). Conclusions Several risk factors are associated with onychomycosis. Knowledge of these risk factors is important when treating and educating patients with onychomycosis. Key words: onychomycosis, risk factors, prevalence Received: 19 July 2002, accepted 13 February 2003 Introduction Onychomycosis is a common disease of the nail. The prevalence in population-based studies ranges from 2 to 11%.1–3 For many years griseofulvin was the only available oral therapy. The newer azoles and allylamines have dramatically improved cure rates.4 Recent studies have demonstrated that recurrence, either by reinfection or relapse of previous infection, is seen in up to 50% of cases.5 It has also been demonstrated that patients who fail standard therapy regimens can in many cases be successfully treated with an individualized treatment regimen.5 It is known that onychomycosis is associated with several risk factors such as old age,6 psoriasis,7 diabetes8 and individuals involved with sport activities.9 It would be of great value in the prevention 48 and treatment of onychomycosis if further risk factors for this disease could be identified. The objectives of this study were to examine the risk factors, known and unknown, for onychomycosis in a large population-based sample of individuals. Patients and methods Questions related to signs and symptoms of onychomycosis, detailed in a questionnaire, were sent to 3992 persons aged 16 years and older, selected randomly from the Icelandic National Registry. The Registry includes information about all living Icelanders. The questionnaire included photographs of nails infected with dermatophytes, normal nails and also other nail diseases. The respondents were asked to compare these with their own nails. To ensure the reliability of this © 2004 European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology Risk factors for onychomycosis 49 method, a preliminary quality control study was carried out on patients with onychomycosis. Out of 55 patients seen for onychomycosis at our clinic, 50 (91%) identified themselves with photographs of nails with confirmed onychomycosis rather than other nail disorders or normal nails. Included in the questionnaire were questions about nail status, duration of disease and localization of nail disease, and several questions on possible risk factors for onychomycosis. The part of the study that relates to the prevalence of onychomycosis in Iceland has already been published.1 At the time of the study there were 229 263 persons aged 16 years or older in the National Registry, so 1.74% of the Icelandic population aged 16 years and older were included in the study. Patients with suspected nail changes based on photographs were offered a clinical examination with mycological sampling. Direct examination of specimens was performed after nail scrapings had been immersed in 5% KOH solution containing dimethyl sulfoxide. Specimens were inoculated on Sabouraud’s glucose agar containing chloramphenicol 0.05 g/L and on mycobiotic agar. Plates were incubated at 30°C for 3 weeks and examined at weekly intervals. Risk calculations were based on the individual’s response after studying the accompanying photographs. Information regarding concomitant disorders was derived from the questionnaire, but no attempt was made to further verify this information. We calculated the odds ratio (OR) for each risk factor with a 95% confidence interval (CI).10 Results with the lower CI > 1 were considered significant. Results Of the 3992 subjects, 2486 responded (62.3%): this included 1117/1964 (56.9%) males and 1369/2028 (67.5%) females. The estimated prevalence based on positive mycology was 11.1% in the Icelandic population. When only patients with a positive growth of a dermatophyte were considered the prevalence was 8.4%.1 The questionnaire included questions related to other skin disorders, signs and symptoms suggestive of fungal infections of the skin, genetic factors, lifestyle, chronic disorders and atopic diseases (Table 1). Onychomycosis was more common in males than females, with an OR of 1.28 (95% CI 1.03 –1.59). Of the atopic disorders the risk of onychomycosis was slightly increased in patients with a history of angioedema (OR 1.65; 95% CI 1.12–2.42), urticaria (OR 1.36; 95% CI 1.06 –1.73) and asthma (OR 1.52; 95% CI 1.07–2.17). When chronic disorders were examined, patients with a history of cancer had a high risk of developing onychomycosis (OR 3.44; 95% CI 1.15 –10.35). In patients with gastrointestinal (OR 1.86; 95% CI 1.03 –3.36) and rheumatological disorders (OR 1.88; 95% CI 1.25 –2.83) the associated risk was low. Table 1 Possible risk factors associated with onychomycosis based on a questionnaire Odds ratio 95% Confidence interval Atopic eczema Angioedema Urticaria Asthma 0.69 1.65 1.36 1.52 0.44–1.10 1.12–2.42* 1.06–1.73* 1.07–2.17* Chronic disorders Cancer Heart Lung Gastrointestinal Endocrinological Rheumatological Neurological 3.44 1.63 1.34 1.86 1.48 1.88 0.62 1.15–10.35* 0.91–2.92 0.69–2.59 1.03–3.36* 0.73–2.97 1.25–2.83* 0.08–4.86 Skin disorders Psoriasis Eczema Other 2.44 0.91 1.28 1.61–3.72* 0.58–1.44 0.88–1.87 Fungal infections of the skin Tinea pedis (interdigitalis) Tinea pedis (moccasin type) Dry palms 3.93 4.26 1.60 3.11–4.95* 3.34–5.45* 1.11–2.32* 2.59 3.48 2.53 0.98 1.89–3.53* 2.05–5.88* 1.72–3.72* 0.51–1.87 2.57 0.99 1.62 2.74 1.13 2.00–3.30* 0.73–1.34 0.73–3.60 2.19–3.42* 0.90–1.42 Atopic disorders Genetic factors Parents with onychomycosis Children with onychomycosis Spouse with onychomycosis Others living in same household with onychomycosis Lifestyle Regular swimmer University education Nursing home Aged 50 or older Smoking *A significant association with onychomycosis. Fungal infections were strongly associated with onychomycosis. High risk was found in patients with the interdigital (OR 3.93; 95% CI 3.11–4.95) and the moccasin form (OR 4.26; 95% CI 3.34 –5.45) of tinea pedis. Slightly elevated risk was even associated with a history of dry palms (OR 1.60; 95% CI 1.11–2.32), which might be suggestive of an id reaction in some of these patients. Genetic factors seem to play a role, as elevated risk was found in patients who had children (OR 3.48; 95% CI 2.05– 5.88) or parents (OR 2.59; 95% CI 1.89 –3.53) with onychomycosis. Direct transmission to members of the same household cannot be excluded as slightly elevated risk was found in patients whose spouse (OR 2.53; 95% CI 1.72–3.72) had onychomycosis. The risk in regular swimmers was increased (OR 2.57; 95% CI 2.00–3.30) and age obviously played a role, with © 2004 European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology JEADV (2004) 18, 48 – 5 1 50 Sigurgeirsson and Steingrímsson increased risk in those 50 years or older (OR 2.74; 95% CI 2.19 –3.42). Discussion Knowledge about risk factors for onychomycosis is important. It is known that patients with psoriasis,7 diabetes8 and immunosupression11 are more prone to onychomycosis. Onychomycosis also increases with age6 and most studies have showed higher prevalence among males. It is also known that sport activity increases the risk of onychomycosis;9 for instance, a high prevalence has been demonstrated in swimmers.12 In the present study we examined several risk factors. We found it interesting to examine the atopic disorders, as there have been several reports of patients with atopic disorders and onychomycosis. In some of these cases it has been reported that with treatment of onychomycosis the signs and symptoms of the atopic disorders have disappeared. This suggests that in selected cases, patients can have reactive disorders as a result of a fungal infection.13–16 In the present study we were not able to determine the nature of the association between these disorders and onychomycosis, but patients with asthma, urticaria and angioedema were more likely to have onychomycosis. This could be explained by an allergic reaction to the fungus that causes the atopic disease or by the fact that patients with these disorders are more prone to onychomycosis. Immunosuppressive states such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection are known to be associated with onychomycosis.17 To our knowledge the association of cancer and onychomycosis has not been demonstrated before. It is possible that immunosuppression, which often follows advanced malignant disease, increases the risk of onychomycosis. The treatment of the cancer can also play a role in making the patient more susceptible to a fungal infection. The same arguments apply for rheumatological disorders, which also seem to be associated with increased risk of onychomycosis. We have no ready explanation for the increased risk associated with gastrointestinal disorders. No risk was seen with endocrinological disorders, although the association with diabetes has been clearly demonstrated in the literature.8 The association between onychomycosis and psoriasis has been reported before7 and is probably more frequent than previously thought.18 We were not able to demonstrate an association of eczema or other skin disorders with onychomycosis. It is not surprising that patients with a history of other fungal infections of the feet have a higher risk of onychomycosis. The highest risk was associated with the moccasin form of tinea pedis. Even patients who described dry fissuring palms had a higher risk of onychomycosis. We believe that in this case the dry palms can be a sign of an id reaction.19 Genetic factors are thought to play a role in the susceptibility of onychomycosis.20 In this study we found increased risk in patients whose parents or children had onychomycosis, but elevated risk was not found when other members of the same household had onychomycosis. The risk was also increased when the spouse had onychomycosis, which points to transmission to the subject from the spouse. We found increased risk in swimmers. This has been demonstrated before12 and also in relation to other sports.9 We also found that the risk of onychomycosis was higher in those aged 50 years or older. This has been reported previously in several studies.6,21 We did not find an association with smoking. A recent study has shown an increased risk of onychomycosis in heavy smokers.22 Our study, however, included too few heavy smokers to make that kind of analysis possible. We have demonstrated several important risk factors that are associated with onychomycosis. Increased risk was found in patients with a history of atopic disorders, chronic diseases, psoriasis, other fungal infections of the skin, sport and increased age. A possible genetic link was also demonstrated. Knowledge about risk factors is important for those who treat patients with onychomycosis. Many of the risk factors we have shown to be associated with onychomycosis have not been reported before. A questionnaire study is in essence a crude tool and the results must therefore be interpreted with caution until they have been further investigated in other studies. References 1 Sigurgeirsson B, Steingrimsson O, Sveinsdottir S. Prevalence of onychomycosis in Iceland: a population-based study. Acta Derm Venereol 2002; 82: 467–469. 2 Heikkila H, Stubb S. The prevalence of onychomycosis in Finland. Br J Dermatol 1995; 133: 699 –703. 3 Roberts DT. Prevalence of dermatophyte onychomycosis in the United Kingdom: results of an omnibus survey. Br J Dermatol 1992; 126 (Suppl. 39): 23 –27. 4 Evans EG, Sigurgeirsson B. Double blind, randomised study of continuous terbinafine compared with intermittent itraconazole in treatment of toenail onychomycosis. Br Med J 1999; 318: 1031–1035. 5 Sigurgeirsson B, Olafsson JH, Steinsson JB et al. Long-term effectiveness of treatment with terbinafine vs itraconazole in onychomycosis: a 5-year blinded prospective follow-up study. Arch Dermatol 2002; 138: 353 –357. 6 Pierard G. Onychomycosis and other superficial fungal infections of the foot in the elderly: a pan-European survey. Dermatology 2001; 202: 220 –224. 7 Gupta AK, Lynde CW, Jain HC et al. A higher prevalence of onychomycosis in psoriatics compared with non-psoriatics: a multicentre study. Br J Dermatol 1997; 136: 786 –789. © 2004 European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology JEADV (2004) 18, 48–51 Risk factors for onychomycosis 51 8 Gupta AK, Konnikov N, MacDonald P et al. Prevalence and epidemiology of toenail onychomycosis in diabetic subjects: a multicentre survey. Br J Dermatol 1998; 139: 665 – 671. 9 Caputo R, De Boulle K, Del Rosso J et al. Prevalence of superficial fungal infections among sports-active individuals: results from the Achilles survey, a review of the literature. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2001; 15: 312 –316. 10 Vitenbroek DG. Simple interactive statistical analysis, SISA 1997. http://home.clara.net/sisa/ (1 January 2002). 11 Gregory N. Special patient populations: onychomycosis in the HIV-positive patient. J Am Acad Dermatol 1996; 35: S13 –S16. 12 Gudnadottir G, Hilmarsdottir I, Sigurgeirsson B. Onychomycosis in Icelandic swimmers. Acta Derm Venereol 1999; 79: 376 –377. 13 Schwartz HJ, Ward GW. Onychomycosis, Trichophyton allergy and asthma – a causal relationship? Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1995; 74: 523–524. 14 Elewski BE, Schwartz HJ. Asthma induced by allergy to Trichophyton rubrum. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 1999; 12: 250 –253. 15 Wilson BB, Deuell B, Mills TA. Atopic dermatitis associated with dermatophyte infection and Trichophyton hypersensitivity. Cutis 1993; 51: 191–192. 16 Klein PA, Clark RA, Nicol NH. Acute infection with Trichophyton rubrum associated with flares of atopic dermatitis. Cutis 1999; 63: 171–172. 17 Gupta AK, Taborda P, Taborda V et al. Epidemiology and prevalence of onychomycosis in HIV-positive individuals. Int J Dermatol 2000; 39: 746 –753. 18 Staberg B, Gammeltoft M, Onsberg P. Onychomycosis in patients with psoriasis. Acta Derm Venereol 1983; 63: 436 –438. 19 Veien NK, Hattel T, Laurberg G. Plantar Trichophyton rubrum infections may cause dermatophytids on the hands. Acta Derm Venereol 1994; 74: 403 –404. 20 Zaias N, Tosti A, Rebell G et al. Autosomal dominant pattern of distal subungual onychomycosis caused by Trichophyton rubrum. J Am Acad Dermatol 1996; 34: 302–304. 21 Gupta AK, Jain HC, Lynde CW et al. Prevalence and epidemiology of onychomycosis in patients visiting physicians’ offices: a multicenter Canadian survey of 15 000 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000; 43: 244 –248. 22 Gupta AK, Gupta MA, Summerbell RC et al. The epidemiology of onychomycosis: possible role of smoking and peripheral arterial disease. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2000; 14: 466 –469. © 2004 European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology JEADV (2004) 18, 48 – 5 1