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1 2 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bacteria occur in many shapes and sizes. Bacteria of four shapes: rodshaped, sphere-shaped, spiral-shaped, or filamentous-shaped. األهداب شبه نواة الريبوزومات غشاء بالزمى الجدار الخلوى الكبسولة األسواط Plasma membrane Ribosomes Nucleoid Cell Wall Cytoplasm (Cytosol) Capsule Bacteria occur in many shapes and sizes. Most bacteria have one of three basic shapes: rod-shaped, sphere-shaped, or spiral-shaped. Spiral shaped bacteria in the form of spirilla (singular, spirillum) or vibrio (comma like). Sphere-shaped bacteria are called cocci (singular, coccus). An example of cocci is Micrococcus luteus. Cocci are single or aggregate cells in different shapes. Rod-shaped bacteria are called bacilli (singular, bacillus). An example of bacilli is Escherichia coli. Bacilli are single or aggregate cells in different shapes also. It is a tool for identifying تعريفbacteria, based on differences in their cell walls. A)- Gram-positive (Gram +ve) bacteria: Their cell walls have large amounts كمية كبيرةof peptidoglycans that react with Gram’s stain (appear violet-stained )تـُصبغ بنفسجيا. B)- Gram-negative (Gram -ve) bacteria: their cell walls have no or small amount of peptidoglycan. So, do not react or very weakly react with Gram’s stain (appear red-stained )تصبغ باألحمر Gram Stain Most species of bacteria are classified into two categories based on the structure of their cell walls as determined by a technique called the Gram stain. Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell wall, and they appear violet under a microscope after the Gram-staining procedure. Gram-negative bacteria have a thin layer of peptidoglycan in their cell wall, and they appear reddishpink under a microscope after the Gram-staining procedure. Gram +ve bacteria: have Large amount of peptidoglycan that stained violet. Gram –ve bacteria: Have small amount or no peptidoglycan stained red. Most Gram-negative species are pathogenic ( ) ممرضةmore threatening ( )أكثر خطورةthan gram-positive species. Gram-negative bacteria are commonly more resistant ()أكثر ممانعة than gram-positive species to antibiotics للمضادات الحياتية. Many prokaryotes (bacteria) secrete a sticky protective layer called capsule outside the cell wall. Capsule has the following functions وظائف: 1. 2. 3. 4. Adhere تثبيتbacterial cells to their substratum السطح. Increase bacterial resistance المقاومةto host defenses مناعة العائل. Stick ) )تلصقbacterial cells together when live in colonies. Protect تحمىbacterial cell. In all prokaryotes, the functions of the cell wall are as following: 1. maintains تحافظthe shape of the cell, 2. affords physical protection توفر الحماية الطبيعية 3. prevents the cell from bursting ( )إنفجارin a hypotonic environment البيئة ذات التركيز األسموزى المنخفض. Most bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan (a polymer of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides). The walls of Archaea lack ( )تـفـتـقـدpeptidoglycan. التكاثر في البكتريا Prokaryotes reproduce ()تـتـكاثر only asexually ( )ال جنسياby binary fission ()اإلنقسـام الثـنائي البسيط. A single cell produces a colony of offspring. Nutrition refers to how an organism obtains energy and a carbon source from the environment to build the organic molecules of its cells. • Prokaryotes are grouped (صنٍفـَت ُ ) into four categories ( )أنواعaccording to how they obtain energy and carbon Phototrophs ()ضوئية التغذية: Chemotrophs ()كيميائية التغذية: Organisms that obtain energy from light. Organisms that obtain energy from chemicals in their environment. Autotrophs ()ذاتية التغذية: Heterotrophs ()متعدد التغذية: a carbon source. Organisms that use CO2 as a carbon source. Organisms that use organic nutrients as Photoautotrophs ()ذاتية التغذية الضوئية: use light energy as an energy source, and CO2 as a carbon source to synthesize ( )تخلقorganic compounds. Chemoautotrophs ))ذاتية التغذية الكيميائية: use chemical inorganic substances as an energy source, and CO2 as a carbon source. Photoheterotrophs ()متعدد التغذية الضوئية: use light as an energy source, and organic substances as carbon sources. Chemoheterotrophs ()متعدد التغذية الكيميائية: use organic substances as a source for both energy and carbon.