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The good life: Our search for happiness We cannot locate the good anywhere because it is in all things without being something itselfno where do we find the good, we find only good things Plato thought that the closest we come to the good is in contemplation, in contemplation we bask in the good and it enters into our knowing Plato had high regard for philosophers because he thought that as contemplatives of the good, philosophers were closest to the good They have chosen the happiest life and are happy because they know how to act in accordance with beliefs; they make true choices about the value and worth of their actions, while all other people are ruled by feelings not truth Plato had to struggle against sophism- a movement that threatened to undermine all morality Sophists proclaimed there could be no truth; all so called truth is no more than an opinion If there is no truth than there can be no such thing as a universal moral codemoral values are just opinions, and life is ruled by basic needs and desires This movement caused the state to deteriorate to a near-total moral collapse- it was ruled by private pleasure of greed, drink, food, sex Plato looked for something that could stem this flood of social disorder and found that is was reason (which finds the good that pervades everything. Agreed with Plato that all people aspire to some good and seek to be happy, that philosophers were the most likely to succeed in the search for happiness and the good, and the search for happiness and good has more to do with acting intelligently that with following one’s inclinations. However Aristotle considered Plato’s idea of the good too abstract- he said people do not find the good; they find a good The good is to be found in God, and is inscribed by him into the nature of each thing- good is within all things! To search for the good is to go to each thing and discover its potential, asking: What is the purpose or aim of this thing? How can we best achieve this aim or goal? Incorporated Aristotle’s teachings into theology. His two major works “Summa contra Gentiles” and “Summa theologica” reflect the impact Aristotle's thinking has upon him Like Aristotle, Aquinas insisted that the ethical comes from the end that is inscribed in the nature of all creatures What something is for is at the core of what something is, and at a person’s core is a desire for the good Equated God with the highest good, and his faith in the immortality of the human soul and the resurrection of Christ allowed him a vision of life with a much more refined notion of the end of human beings Aquinas added that human happiness was not exhausted with the good life lived on earth to Aristotle’s idea that happiness connects to a good life lived by a virtuous person Aquinas’s ethics operated on two levels: He followed Aristotle closely and also believed people live the good life by using their intelligence and other capabilities such as their senses, desires, and physical abilities To know how to use one’s intellectual and sensual capacities, one must follow the natural law which he described as “nothing other than the light of understanding placed in us by God; through it we know what we must do and what we must avoid 1) prudence- how to reason well in moral decision making 2) temperance- how to remain moderate in the exercise of the emotions 3) fortitude- how to be courageous in the face of life’s difficulties 4) justice- how to act well in relation to others Traditionally these have been called the cardinal virtues (cardinal: from the latin cardo, meaning hinge). These values are the “hinges” supporting human life. God’s self gift to us in Jesus and the Holy Spirit changes the way we define what is good Virtues of faith, hope and charity are introduced here, and the initiative for these virtues does not lie within us it comes from God For example: Charity- is first of all God’s love for us, because God loves us we can then love others Faith- is first God’s self revealing action before it becomes a virtue in us These virtues begin as a pure gift, and our response is to accept it, give it thanks and praise, and live in accordance with the gift Kant lived in the period of the “Enlightenment”, a time characterized by the sweeping away of any authority or religion that could not justify itself in the court of reason There were no kings, priests, bible’s, churches…unless they could prove by reason that they had a right to have authority Only reason had authority….it is in this context Kant sought to find an unassailable ground for ethics Kant rejected the ethics that emphasized happiness as a by product of doing good, such as Aristotle and Aquinas had suggested Kant’s argument was that people will do good because it is their duty, this is how people of reason act. They must live autonomously and find reason for doing good in themselves…all other goods in life, such as intelligence and love, are of lesser value than the good will, they are only a means by which to obtain it. However, Kant believed that humans could not achieve the supreme good in this life, and as a result acknowledged the immortality of the soul Therefore: there must be a life beyond this life Kant’s God was a good who is also held to duty he must make certain humans can indeed achieve the supreme good In contrast to Aristotle & Aquinas : The supreme good is not the self gift of God’s love to us, but a necessary condition of reason. Faith, hope, and charity lose their place in this theory. Levinas places the infinite Good, who is God, at the heart of ethics For Levinas, the good comes as a call, a vocation, it does not come from one’s self ie: The ethical experience of the beggar in Chapter 1. When we face a beggar we must respond, even if we chose not to help them, the appeal follows us Levinas appreciated comforts in life, but was very aware of the danger of being totally absorbed in caring for one’s self. It is the other who awakens me to the highest good. Teleological: natural ethics Catholic ethical theory frequently turns to Aristotle’s teleological approach, as reflected in the work of Aquinas For instance: Aquinas begins with questions about human happiness, then explores human actions, how evil enters into them, how they are influenced by passions, and how they gradually become habits and virtues. He then explores human action from the perspective of God’s self gift Deontological: obligation (In chp 8) The role of obligation in our decision making, what we must do in a given situation, how we make a moral judgment The role of laws and rules for human behavior in particular circumstances, the norms for human action Impact of the gospel (In chp 9) Considers the impact of the gospel on us and our actions The gospel proclaims that the son of God has entered human history as a man to open up possibilities for actions that are motivated by God’s love in our hearts The standards of excellence of the “good life” a) There are no recipes - God created us unique and so our person vocations are unique and irreplaceable. Therefore, there are no recipes that would serve each person in achieving their particular aim of life. However knowing the great tradition of human wisdom about a life of excellence helps. The Church places emphasis on the communion of the saints to provide us with examples to help each one of us plan our own path in life. 1. b) Standards of excellence -Standards of excellence are sets of best practices. Just as it is possible to become a chess master, it is possible to set certain standards of excellence within the human life. c) The study and practice of virtue -A virtue is a kind of excellence and put into practice virtues become the strengths and solidity of our character. For example a just person is one who consistently acts justly, not just someone who has a just disposition. There are many virtues that catholic tradition recommends including the cardinal virtues temperance, prudence and justice -touches mainly on three essentials in life: food, drink, sex -temperance is not about finding a middle ground, rather it means “I should take proper care of myself, I must preserve myself” - The passions of human life are powerful forces and should not only be seen as something to repress, rather temper-> that is, using these passions for human growth - Our enjoyment for these things is one of the prime forces behind self preservation, they are part of our desire to exist. - Hence temperance is positive and life affirming - Intemperance is destructive and selfish, and means using these forces of self preservation for their own sake. Intemperance abuses food, sex and drink to a point where they are not there for self preservation but objects of addiction. Properly defined, chastity means living in such a way that our own needs, desires, agendas, and impatience do not get in the way of letting gift be gift, other be other and God be God. Obviously this depends on proper respect and waiting. For example, sex is only chaste when it does not short-circuit full respect, like it may through prematurity, force or unfair pressure Chastity is 90% about waiting and means the integration of sexuality within the person. It includes an apprenticeship in self mastery. 2) The role of the other in attaining the good life - I cannot live the good life by myself - Aristotle realized this and wrote that friendship is not only a feeling of attachment for another but a virtue - Solicitude: the other, not as a friend, but as an ethical approach Anxious concern for the other The experience of the other is not only from friendship, but from the appeal of a needy other, someone we may not like The ethical life is about giving and receiving, is lived with and for others, and we cannot live without solicitude; regard for the other 3) The good life needs just institutions - Institutions are stable sets or systems of meanings, beliefs and values - Over time, the values of food, shelter, health, education, economy and religion became stabilized in social institutions - Ethics is interested in the way these promote and stabilize our search for the good - Institutions are the backbone of common good as in them we find our values, beliefs and practices - They are spaces in society for acting together and where justice and equality play a central role - However they are as good as the people who are part of them and who are willing to put their efforts in them…ethics is tied to institutions because we are responsible for making them life giving and just, changing them when they become destructive, and protecting them when they become attacked Chastity- the integration of sexuality with the person, includes an apprenticeship in self-mastery. Every baptized person is called to lead a chaste life, each according to his particular state of life. Happiness- the gospels speak of happiness in terms of the beatitudes- blessedness. God has placed the desire for happiness in the human heart in order to draw us to the One alone who can fulfill it. We find happiness in life by living the good life; that is, life in the way of Christ. Institutions- Social constructs that give structure and form to a community’s set of values , beliefs and meanings. For example educational institutions give concrete structure and form to the value of learning. Solicitude- anxious concern for another Temperance- restraint of human passions and appetites in accordance with reason; self control of the body. Virtue- human virtues are firm attitudes, stable dispositions, habitual perfections of intellect and will, that govern our actions, order our passions and guide our conduct according to reason and faith. CHAPTER 8:NORMS OF MORAL LIVING Norms and Obligations Societies set up governing institutions and delegate lawmakers to make and enforce laws and rules to protect those things that the people of that society consider to be important for the common good. With norms come obligation and duty: Laws do not invite us to seek the common good; they command us to do so. “You shall…” or “You shall not…” What Are Norms? Moral Norms are criteria of judgment about the sort of person we ought to be, and the sorts of actions we ought to perform.” Criteria are standards that serve as guides for action. Norms have 4 characteristics that prompt this feeling of obligation. 1. Norms are declared by an authority Some norms come from God ( Ten Commandments), some come from humans (civil law) Our obligation to these authorities is derived from the power that has been given to them through election, delegation, ordination and so on. Positions of leadership empower these persons of authority to make laws, set rules and prescribe behaviours. 2. Norms must be rational For norms to become obligatory, they must be reasonable. If a rule is reasonable and is explained rationally, it creates a sense of obligation to obey it. If an appropriate rule is explained and justified, you feel impelled from within to follow it. Kant: Duty and obligation are rational. Reason is the prime source of obligation. 3. Norms Involve Our freedom A norm obliges us, in our freedom, to act in a certain way, addressing our sense of responsibility. Because moral norms promote and protect values, they guide us and they seek our assent. There are 5 ways in which moral norms function to assist our freedom: 1) Norms impart wisdom: By transmitting the moral wisdom of the past, they put us in touch with the experience of those who have gone before us. This can protect us from some error and hurt. 2)Norms provide security: Because we are a nurtured species, we rely on easily learned rules to give us a measure of comfort when we do things for the first time as we mature. 3)Norms help us make decisions with speed and accuracy: If moral norms are known and appreciated, we waste less time and get the right thing done by following the norm. 4)Norms are helpful for examining our conscience: To examine our hearts honestly, we need some criteria to judge our actions. 5) Norms function to unify a people: A sense of purpose and common goals are main ingredients of community. Norms promote and protect values that unify a people by enabling them to live in harmony. 4. Norms direct our inclinations and desires Norms are guides that help us steer through the maze of human inclinations and desires. The Catechism of the Catholic Church defines passions as “emotions or movements of the sensitive appetite that incline us to act or not to act in regard to something felt or imagined to be good and evil.” Passions are a gift from God; they are a part of who you are. Passions and Inclinations Passions are feelings, desires or emotions (love, hatred, sadness, fear and anger) Morally speaking, passions are neither good nor evil. They become morally good or evil only when governed by reason. “Passions are morally good when they contribute to a good action, evil in the opposite case.” Norms are guides that help us steer through the maze of human inclinations and desires. Laws:5 Requirements For a Law 1. Lawmaker God’s law (eternal law)—revealed through the Bible and sacred texts. Also revealed through us (natural law). Since we are made in the image of God, God’s law is also written in our capacity to reason, in our passions and inclinations and in our actions and relationships. Human law—has its own legislators, such as federal and provincial government. 2. A Specific Directive of Action Laws tend to be very specific, spelling out exactly how the subjects of the law are to act. 3. The Common Good Catholic social teaching-without denying the rights of individuals-holds that laws are primarily intended to give shape to the common good (which refers to the general well-being of all society). It includes such things as peace, security, protection of the law and good order. 4. A Specific Group of People Laws that are set up to help specific groups of people Laws function within an institutional framework. They address the people who participate in these institutions of society and the church. 5. Obligation As humans we are obliged to maintain and sustain the common good (rational thinkers) So important is the common good, that we are morally obligated to chose the means necessary to achieve it. Therefore, if a law contributes to the common good, we are obligated to follow it. Rules Rules are not strictly legislated but are nevertheless obligatory guidelines for action. Rules indicate how we ought to behave in certain situations. Sometimes when there is conflict between rules it is quite easy to distinguish which must be followed. However, in many cases, it is difficult to make such a judgment, as in situations of war and medical practice. Absolute Rules VS. Generally Binding Rule Generally apply under all circumstances. Examples: “You shall not murder”, always be just, love God and your neighbor as yourself, be honest, do good and avoid evil, etc. These rules are guides to action. They do not enter into detail as to what you must do in particular situations. Apply in all circumstances unless there is another compelling rule in conflict with this rule. Example: Follow the rule “do not lie” depending on what you understand to be a lie. You would not intentionally deceive a person who has the right to the truth, but you would not tell a thief about the whereabouts of valuables in your home. Maxims A maxim is a general truth, or a rule of conduct; they offer guidelines or advice. They come from customs of the past, culture, and from communities or institutions. Ex: “People who live in glass houses should not throw stones” Moral Principles Moral Principles are basic truths we use to determine rules of conduct. In moral reasoning, principles enable us to measure our moral obligation or to figure out how we ought to act in particular situations. They touch on every aspect of our lives where ethics and morality are at stake. Natural Law Catholics refer to “natural law” when they seek to determine whether a certain action is right or wrong. Natural law, as a principle for moral action, affirms that we have the capacity to figure out what is good. The law is written within us in our capacity to reason. Thomas Aquinas: The natural law is nothing other than the light of understanding placed in us by God; through it we know what we must do and what we must avoid. Natural Law: Key Thinkers Jacques Maritain: “Natural Law is made manifest to practical reason in certain judgments, bu these very judgments do not proceed from any conceptual, discursive, rational exercise of reason. They proceed from…inclination.” Thomas Aquinas: “The rational creature by its very rationality participates in the eternal reason, and because of this participation, has a natural inclination to the actions ‘rooted in reason’. Augustine: “that which is not just seems to be no law at all” The Prudent Person Human morality originates in a moral person who acts according to the good. To act according to these norms, laws, rules and principles to consider also requires prudence. The prudent person has the ability to make good choices, who has an almost instinctive inclination towards goodness. Prudence seeks out right reason. It evaluates motives for action. It judges how to make justice and love of God in real day-to-day activities. Gyges Ring An exchange takes place between Socrates and Glaucon where Glaucon wants to prove that, “no one is just of his or her own free will, but only under compulsion.” If both the just and the unjust were given the freedom to do whatever they wanted, the just would follow the same road as the unjust. He used the story of Gyges. Gyges was a Sheppard in the service of the ruler of Lydia. One day, he finds a magic ring and decideds to keep it. While waiting to speak at a monthly council meeting he gave the ring a twist and discovered that the ring had the power to make him invisible and visible as he pleased. He used the ring’s magic to seduce the queen, kill the king and take over the kingdom. Glaucon argued that if there were two such rings, one worn by a just person and the other by the unjust, they both would end up acting in the same way. The one wearing the ring would step beyond society’s rules and do as he or she please as there would be no social compulsion to the right thing. Key Terms Common good: The general well-being of all within society Norm: Norms are guides for action. They come in the form of laws, rules, principles, commandments and maxims. They come with varying degrees of obligation. Law: The judgment of a lawmaker about the means necessary to promote and protect the common good. Rule: A prescribed guide for conduct or action. Key Terms Maxim: A general truth or rule of conduct. Obligation: Something you are bound to do by duty; your responsibility. Inclination: Natural disposition towards a perceived good. Related to passions. Passion: Feelings, desires, or emotions. Morally speaking, they are neither good nor evil in themselves, but are morally good when they contribute to a good action, and morally evil when they contribute to evil action. Key Terms Proverb: A brief, popular saying or adage containing a nugget of wisdom. Natural law: The original moral sense which enables people to discern by reason what is good and what is evil, what is true and what is a lie. Moral principle: Basic truths used to determine rules of conduct. In moral reasoning, principles are used to measure moral obligation or to determine how to act in particular situations. CHAPTER 9-LIVING IN PRAISE AND THANKSGIVING *The previous chapters emphasized what we must do as we strive to live ethically and morally. This chapter emphasizes what God brings to the relationship and our response to God and to God’s personal call to each one of us. It represents a considerable enrichment of how we understand ourselves as ethical and moral beings The ethics of the beatitudes What do the beatitudes say about ethics and morality? They are about God’s way of being with us and God’s abundant generosity. What is the orientation the beatitudes give to us? 1) We are called to recognize that all is God’s gift The beatitudes call us to acknowledge that everything comes out of God’s goodness and abundance Everything begins with His love Our Catholic religion is based upon what God has done for us, and only then what we do in response to His love Of all the gifts, Jesus is the greatest gift. This sets the tone for the whole message of Jesus 2) We are called to repent and believe the good news: Our first response to the beatitudes is repentance, or what the Christian tradition calls conversion In Mark’s gospel, Jesus says that the kingdom of God has come near. This is the time of God’s generosity. The people are asked to “repent and believe in the good news” To repent or convert is to let go of one’s previous way of living and looking at life Accept God’s generosity and love and make these the starting point of your life 3) We are called to live a life of praise and thanksgiving Our second response to this generosity is to live a life of praise and thanksgiving If the beatitudes are about God’s goodness, we should first thank God liturgy and participation in liturgy are important for Catholic life. The gift of God’s life and love needs to be received and celebrated. 4) We are called to live generously • Our third response is an ethics, the motivation for which is radically different from that discussed in the previous two chapters • It is not an ethics of obligation. It is an ethics of response- gospel ethics or eschatological ethics • It is living God’s gift and responding generously with what I can give, acting not out of fear but out of love by God’s grace **The Gospels present us with two versions of the beatitudes. In chapter 5 you were presented with Matthew’s beatitudes. Chapter 9 explores Luke’s version of the beatitudes and what they mean for our vocation to happiness** The beatitudes are the Christian blueprint for the building of the kingdom of God on earth Matthew’s beatitudes (don’t have to study this) Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled Blessed are the merciful, for they will receive mercy Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God Blessed are the peacemakers for they will be called children of God Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven Blesses are you when people revile you and persecute you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my account. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you. Luke’s beatitudes (Luke 6.20-26) (don’t have to study this either) Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the kingdom of God Blessed are you who are hungry now, for you will be filled Blessed who you who weep now, for you will laugh Blessed are you when people hate you, and when they exclude you, revile you, and defame you on account of the Son of Man. Rejoice in that day and leap for joy, for surely your reward is great in heaven; for that is what their ancestors did to the prophets But woe to you who are rich, for you have received your consolation Woe to you who are full now, for you will be hungry Woe to you who are laughing now, for you will mourn and weep Woe to you when all speak well of you, for that is what their ancestors did to the false prophets Whom is jesus addressing in the beatitudes? *refer to pg. 166 for more pts; only need to know 3 each for test* Matthew: Luke: • The Sermon is addressed to those who have welcomed • The poor are the real poor, those who have to Christ and belong to the community of disciples: first “crouch” for their living (beggars) the disciples, then the crowd who has come from all • The hungry are the poor who have no food and no the regions of Israel way to sustain themselves • Poor in spirit: someone who is poor within, knowing • Those who weep are the rejected and the distressed him/herself to be totally dependent upon God to live because of their poverty and grow; a humble person; a person who is not attatched to the things of this earth • Mourners: those afflicted with intense sorrow, keen suffering or a great loss. Spiritual sufferers are those who mourn for their own sins and for the sins of others A liturgy of thanks and praise Liturgy, charity, spirituality and vocation is central to our response to God’s generosity The word “liturgy” originally meant a “public work” or a “service in the name of/on behalf of the people”. the liturgy is a participation in Christ’s own prayer addressed to the Father in the Holy Spirit. In the liturgy, all Christian prayer finds its source and goal What happens in these symbolic actions that are, at once, God’s work and our work, Christ’s prayer and our prayer? A LITURGY OF THANKS AND PRAISE CONTINUED… 1) God gathers us Even though liturgical encounters seem to take place through our initiative, it is God who desires to meet us 2) God and creation exchange gifts The invitation to gather at liturgy is to make possible an exchange of gifts. God shares with us the gift of creation, life, death, resurrection of Jesus and the Holy Spirit. Our part of this exchange is to receive these gifts, offer God praise and thanksgiving, to allow ourselves to be transformed by the love of God and so to be agents of transformation in the world 3) The mystery of God’s love is made known through ritual, symbol and word In liturgy, the interaction with God happens sacramentally. It uses language, rituals and symbols. We encounter God in the proclamation of the Word of God. 4) The liturgy achieves our salvation If our greatest beatitude is to be in the presence of God or to see the face of God, liturgy enacts and makes real this being with God on earth. Our liturgy on earth is an anticipation of and participation in the heavenly liturgy. God’s interaction with us in the liturgy is a foretaste of our interaction in the fullness of life, in the resurrection (therefore, the Eastern Church uses visual symbols to help the congregation celebrate what they call heavenly liturgy). We consider liturgy to be part of the work whereby we become whole human beings. This salvation is not just for individuals and their personal relation to God; it is a salvation intended for the world. Liturgy is to make us agents of love and reconciliation for the world. 5) Liturgy promotes moral living In liturgy, ethics and morality are nourished and receive their highest motivation. Liturgy empowers us to act in accordance with the gifts of creation and the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Ethical and moral actions become ways of giving thanks and praise, celebrations of the gift of God. We become generous in our moral life because God is generous Important points **The original Greek word that is used in the beatitudes is makarios, which means both “blessed” and “happy.” ** The beatitudes respond to the natural desire for happiness. This desire is of divine origin: God has placed it in the human heart in order to draw man to the One who alone can fulfil it The ethical aspect of the beatitudes is more evident in Matthew’s version than in Luke’s. Luke is more concerned to show God’s generosity. Matthew is more insistent that this generosity also has ethical repercussions. The beatitudes are invitations to be poor in spirit, peacemakers, meek, to hunger for justice as a response to God’s generosity Chapter 9 glossary Beatitudes: Blessings found in both Matthew 5 and Luke 6 that summarize much of Jesus’ teaching about the kingdom of God. They have 3 parts: (1) the invocation or blessing word (2) the group addressed (3) the conditions of the blessing Charity: The power of God’s love working through us. This love incorporates action on behalf of the needy. Spirituality: The pattern of how faith is translated in action. Liturgy: In Christian tradition it means in the participation of the People of God in the ‘work of God’. The liturgy is the highest exchange or interaction between the work of God and our work. We call the actions in which this encounter occurs sacramental. The official worship of the Church as the Mass, Sacraments, Liturgy of the Hours. Devotional prayer, such as Stations of the Cross and the Rosary also contribute to moral living, as they flow out of liturgy or lead into it. Vocation: A calling to a state of life: marriage, ordained ministry, consecrated life, single state. It is a calling by God to live a life of love in a unique and graced way. Bioethics and the Principle of double effect (note taken in class) The ethics of life is the study of the ethical and moral questions involved in the application of new biological and medical findings There are several principles that must underline all debates about bioethical issues 1. 2. God is the author of life. Humans are made in the image of God, thus human life has profound dignity. It is sacred and deserves respect We cannot do something evil to obtain a good end 3. Sometimes neutral actions result in both good and bad effects. The principle of Double Effect says that given certain circumstances we may engage in such neutral actions a. b. c. d. The action must be either good/ neutral The good cannot be obtained by means of evil The evil effects must not be intended The good effects must be sufficiently desirable for allowing the evil effect to take place. In other words, there must be a proportionally grave reason for allowing the evil to occur 4. Principle of totality- a pat exists for the god of the whole (i.e. a limb may be amputated in order to save a person’s life) 5. A person must use ordinary means to preserve his/her life Ordinary means=medicines, treatments, operations that offer a reasonable benefit that can be obtained and used without excessive pain, expense or inconvenience. A person is not ethically required to use extraordinary means to preserve life 6. Every human life is valuable- from the moment of conception to the moment of death. Everyone has the right to the minimal medical care required to live a productive, healthy life Bioethics #2 1. 2. 3. 4. Bioethics addresses moral issues related to health care and medicine. The fundamental principles underlying all medical ethical decisions are: Life is a gift of inestimable value. All reflection on moral issues that relate to the lab or hospital should begin and end with a conscience Science must be used to benefit people. Science must operate with a conscience Human beings are a unity of body and spirit. An intervention on the human body affects not only the tissues, organs and their functions, it also involves the person himself What is technically possible is not for that very reason morally admissible. Not every medical advancement necessarily serves us for the better Bioethics #2 continued… A new and distinct human life begins at the moment of conception. Information from modern science affirms that right from fertilization the adventure of human life begins. Questions about the beginning of life and abortion are not just scientific but are philosophical and moral. What constitutes a human person is a philosophical and moral question