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WEEKS 1& 2
THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION
The Basics of Communication
Definitions of Communication
Communication is basic to all human activities and very important for the success of individuals and organizations. To be
able to communicate effectively, we must first understand what it is. Everybody communicates in one way or the other so the
term “communication” is often taken for granted. A careful look at the process reveals how complex communication can be.
As a result, it has been variously defined by different people over the years. Here we look at a few definitions that will
facilitate our understanding of the concept.
Categories of Definition
I. Technical definition
Communication is simply ‘sending and receiving messages, or the transmission of messages from one person to another’
(Steinberg, 2006).
The technical definition is lineal and gives the idea of a one-way communication, which involves the sending of information
from a source to a receiver. It tells rather of the use of a machinery or apparatus to convey messages. Besides, some elements
in the communication process are overlooked.
ii. The process Definition
This category looks at communication as a complex dynamic process of exchanging meaningful messages. In addition to the
transmission of messages, it emphasizes interpretation and meaning which are not mentioned in the technical definition. The
process definition sees communication as a central aspect of all human existence. It also presupposes that there is a sequence
of events, always changing and there is no fixed sender and receiver. From this viewpoint, communication can be defined as
‘a complex and dynamic process of exchanging meaningful messages’ (Steinberg, 2006).
III. The Transactional Definition
This definition sees communication as a transactional process of exchanging messages and negotiating meaning to establish
and maintain relationship. This definition is an extension of the process definition. Two parties are mutually involved in the
outcomes of the process. The quality of the relationship as well as the exchange and interpretation of messages are central to
this definition. Meaning is negotiated through the exchange of messages. What has been agreed upon in the transaction
benefits both parties. From this viewpoint, communication is defined as ‘a transactional process of exchanging messages and
negotiating meaning to establish and maintain relationships (Steinberg, 2006).
Other definitions
1.
2.
3.
Communication is the process of people sharing thoughts, ideas and feelings with each other in commonly
understandable ways. (Hamilton 2005)
Communication is an information flow that transfers meaning from a source to a destination (Albanese 1998)
Communication is a shared meaning created among two or more people through verbal and non-verbal
transactions.
(Daniels and Spiker 1994)
These definitions make it clear that information and meaning are essential elements in communication. Information refers to
the message being transmitted. It can be facts, ideas, opinions, concepts and emotions among others.
Meaning occurs when information is placed within a context. Communication context refers to the environment in which a
message is sent. The extent to which shared meaning or common interpretation results among parties involved in the process
determines how effective the communication has been.
We also see from the third definition that communication takes place between people through the use of verbal and non
verbal communication.
Verbal Communication involves the use of the written or spoken word.
Non-Verbal Communication on the other hand makes use of body language, voice intonation, space etc.
The Communication Process
What happens when people communicate?
The process begins when one party decides to convey a message to another party. It is the guide toward realizing
effective communication. It is through the communication process that the sharing of a common meaning between
the sender and the receiver takes place. Individuals that follow the communication process will have the
opportunity to become more productive in every aspect of their profession.
We can improve our communication when we are aware of the various elements that constitute the communication process
and how they contribute to the success of any form of communication.
The communication model below shows the processes involved in communication.
Noise
Noise
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Noise
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Channel
MESSAGE
Feedback
Feedback
Noise
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Source: Gibson and Hanna (1992)
A Communication Model
Elements of the Communication Process
The communication process is made up of six key components. Even though communication is complex and various
definitions exist for it, we can still isolate certain elements common to all communication situation.
.
The Source/Encoder
The communication process begins with the sender/source/encoder. The sender is an individual, group, or
organization who initiates the communication. He/she is the person who has something to say and starts the
communication process. An example is, a lecturer talking to students; the lecturer is the source. The first step the
sender is faced with involves the encoding process, which means translating information into a message in the
form of symbols that represent ideas or concepts. The symbols can take on numerous forms such as, languages,
words, figures or gestures. These symbols are used to encode ideas into messages that others can understand.
When encoding a message, the sender has to begin by deciding what he/she wants to transmit. This decision by the
sender is based on what he/she believes about the receiver’s knowledge and assumptions, along with what
additional information he/she wants the receiver to have. A good way for the sender to improve encoding their
message is to mentally visualize the communication from the receiver's point of view.
For the receiver to make meaning out of the information, it is important for the source to encode the message in familiar
symbols shared by both parties. The source must also have some knowledge about the receiver’s background. This will help
him/her to decide on the language and choice of words to use.
The source is initially responsible for the success of the message. The sender's experiences, attitudes, knowledge,
skill, perceptions, and culture influence the message. "The written words, spoken words, and nonverbal language
selected are paramount in ensuring the receiver interprets the message as intended by the sender" (Burnett &
Dollar, 1989).
2.
Receiver/Decoder
When a message is transmitted, communication has not taken place until it gets to another person or a group of persons. This
is because there must be some destination for the message. The receiver then is the destination for a given message. He/she is
the individual or individuals to whom the message is directed.The receiver receives the messages, decodes and interprets it.
Decoding is conducted by the receiver. Once the message is received and examined, the stimulus is sent to the brain for
interpreting, in order to assign some type of meaning to it. It is this processing stage that constitutes decoding. The receiver
begins to interpret the symbols sent by the sender, translating the message to their own set of experiences in order to make
the symbols meaningful. Successful communication takes place when the receiver correctly interprets the sender's message.
The extent to which this person comprehends the message will depend on a number of factors, which include the
following: how much the individual or individuals know about the topic, their receptivity to the message, and the
relationship and trust that exists between sender and receiver. All interpretations by the receiver are influenced by
their experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture. It is similar to the sender's relationship
with encoding.
3.
The Message: The Verbal and Non-Verbal Form Of Ideas
The message refers to the signs and codes that are exchanged
in the process of communication. It may be an idea, concept, emotion or information that the source desires to share with an
individual or a group. The message can be verbal and non- verbal.
4.
Channel
This refers to the means the sender uses to convey the message. A channel can be oral, written, non-verbal or electronic.
The oral medium includes face-to-face, telephone, speeches and video conferencing. Examples of the written medium are
letters, memos, reports etc.
The non-verbal medium includes body language and vocal behaviour.
E-mail, web chat etc. are some aspects of the electronic communication.
The effectiveness of the various channels fluctuates depending on the characteristics of the communication. For
example, when immediate feedback is necessary, oral communication channels are more effective because any
uncertainties can be cleared up on the spot. In a situation where the message must be delivered to more than a
small group of people, written channels are often more effective. Although in many cases, both oral and written
channels should be used because one supplements the other.
Choosing an appropriate channel
The selection of an appropriate channel is critical to the effectiveness of any communication. If a sender relays a
message through an inappropriate channel, the message may not reach the right receivers. That is why senders
need to keep in mind that selecting the appropriate channel will greatly assist in the effectiveness of the receiver's
understanding. The sender's decision to utilize either an oral or a written channel for communicating a message is
influenced by several factors. The sender should ask him or herself different questions, so that they can select the
appropriate channel. Is the message urgent? Is immediate feedback needed? Is documentation or a permanent
record required? Is the content complicated, controversial, or private? Is the message going to someone inside or
outside the organization? What oral and written communication skills does the receiver possess? Once the sender
has answered all of these questions, they will be able to choose an effective channel.
Choosing the appropriate medium for a given message can thus be affected by many factors including:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
The number of receivers
The location of the receivers
The complexity of the message
The urgency of a message
The type of data; verbal, numeric etc.
The urgency with which feedback is required
The need for evidence paper or electronic
Where there might be some legal implications for the message
The need for future reference
Time needed for communications; Video conferencing instead of face-to-face which might involve travelling.
NB: Multiple media can be used for very important and complicated messages i.e. Face-to-face communication can be
followed by the written message
Policy documents, service conditions, confidential orders and instructions are better communicated through written
communication.
The face-to-face and telephone oral communication offer the advantage of immediate feedback by which mutual
understanding can be reached.
Mangers need to take all these factors into consideration when deciding on the appropriate medium to use.
5.
Noise
Noise is also another common barrier. Noise can occur during any stage of the process. Noise essentially is
anything that distorts a message by interfering with the communication process. Noise can take many forms,
including a radio playing in the background, another person trying to enter your conversation, and any other
distractions that prevent the receiver from paying attention.
Noise refers to any stimulus which prevents the receiver from accurately receiving a message- anything that interferes with
the effectiveness of communication.
Noise can be physical – outside the human body i.e. noise from machines, TV, the siren of a vehicle.
Psychological noise has its source within the individual. Example: Fatigue, sickness, absent mindedness etc.
Semantic noise refers to a person’s inability to understand a message because of one’s lack of proficiency in the language or
the difficulty of a particular word. It can also be due to a person’s low level of education.
Technical noise: This involves a failure in the channel or medium of communication while information is being transmitted.
An example is when a telephone line becomes faulty.
6.
Feedback
This refers to the receiver’s response to the message. Feedback is the final link in the chain of the communication
process. After receiving a message, the receiver responds in some way and signals that response to the sender. It
can be verbal or non-verbal and may take the form of a spoken comment, a long sigh, a written message, a smile,
or some other action. Without feedback, the sender cannot confirm that the receiver has interpreted the message
correctly.
Feedback is a key component in the communication process because it allows the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the
message. It ultimately provides an opportunity for the sender to take corrective action to clarify a misunderstood message.
"Feedback plays an important role by indicating significant communication barriers: differences in background, different
interpretations of words, and differing emotional reactions" (Bovee & Thill, 1992). It eliminates misunderstandings and
ensures that messages are correctly interpreted, and enables senders and receivers to reach a common understanding.
NOTE
It is important to note that mistakes can occur and communication can break down at any stage of the process. People
communicating should be alert to potential problems and perform each step carefully for more effective communication.
One –way and two –way communication
This definition simply refers to the direction in which messages are travelling. Some communication channels are inherently
‘two-way’ such as face-to-face, interviews and meetings which make provision for instant feedback. Others such as posters
and other mass communication media may appear to be one way. All forms of communication are however; open to
feedback in one way or the other. With improvement in technology, both the traditional and new media are becoming more
and more interactive
Situations in which communication exists
Experts have identified six situations in which human communication takes place.
1.
Intrapersonal communication
This refers to communication with oneself. We may find ourselves daydreaming or engaging in internal dialogues even in
the presence of another person. These are internal processes. Intrapersonal communication includes imagining, perceiving, or
solving problems in your head. For instance interpersonal communication takes place when you debate with yourself,
mentally listing the pros and cons of a decision before taking action.
2. Interpersonal communication
This is the process of message transaction between people who work toward creating and sustaining shared meaning.
3. Small group communication
Communication between and among members of a team who meet for a common purpose
4. Organizational communication
This is the communication with and among large, extended groups. Organizational communication may involve other
communication types, such as interpersonal communication. An example is seen in an interaction between a supervisor and
his subordinate. It may also involve small group communication, for example a small group preparing a report.
5. Mass communication
Communication to a large audience via some mediated channel such as the television, radio, the Internet, or newspapers.
There is a convergence between interpersonal and mass communication when for instance people conduct interviews and
other forms of communication using the radio, television or during a web chat etc.
6. Public communication
Pubic communication is the communication in which one person gives a speech to a large audience in public and in person.
Public communication is often called public speaking. Most of the time, the purpose of public speaking is to inform
persuade, and entertain.
Functions of Communication
The main functions of communication are:
 To initiate action
 To give information
 Establish and maintain relationships
To Initiate Action
We use communication to express our needs and requirements.
Example: When a baby cries, it is a signal to the mother that he/she is hungry. The mother responds by providing food for
the baby. In the business environment, when an individual gives instruction to another, the recipients act on the instruction.
We also use communication to initiate action when we persuade or motivate somebody to take an action.
To Exchange or Give Information
We use communication to give information of all kinds. For instance academic institutionstell students when schools will
reopen, where and how to do their registration, whom to see when faced with a particular problem. As we communicate to
inform, our purpose is to create awareness, understanding and to influence others.
Establishing Relationships
Establishing, acknowledging and maintaining relationships with other people are vital functions of communication.
WEEK 3
Effective communication
Sender
A
Message
B
Receiver
C
Message
B
In effective communication, both sender A and receiver C have the same message i.e. message B.
Benefits of effective communication
The importance of effective communication is immeasurable in the world of business and in personal life. From a
business perspective, effective communication is an absolute must, because it commonly accounts for the
difference between success and failure or profit and loss. It has become clear that effective business
communication is critical to the successful operation of modern enterprise. Every business person needs to
understand the fundamentals of effective communication.
Currently, most companies in the 21st century are working toward the realization of total quality management.
Effective communication is the most critical component of total quality management. The manner in which
individuals perceive and talk to each other at work about different issues is a major determinant of the business
success. It has proven that poor communication reduces quality, weakens productivity, and eventually leads to
anger and a lack of trust among individuals within the organization.
Effective communication is necessary for managers and for all other members of an organization.
1. It leads to increased efficiency and helps to produce high quality goods and services.
2. It also enables organizations to respond promptly to the needs of customers and other stakeholders of an organization.
3. It facilitates innovation, which can give a competitive advantage to an organization.
4. Effective communication leads to increased productivity both for the individual and the organization.
5. Through effective communication, you can anticipate problems, make decisions, coordinate work flow, supervise
others and develop relationships.
6. Effective communication helps you make positive impression on your company, colleagues, supervisors, investors
and customers.
Ineffective Communication
Sender
Message
A
B
Receiver
C
Message
D
Communication is, however, ineffective where sender A, sends message B, but receiver C receives message D. ineffective
communication can interfere with sound business solutions and can even make problems worse. People misunderstand each
other and misinterpret information.
Characteristics of effective communication
An effective message must have the following characteristics it must be:
Relevant
The information must be relevant to the needs of the recipient. People want to know how a message will benefit them. E.g. If
an angry customer calls to complain about a product or service and you are talking to him about the new product/service you
are going to launch, this message is irrelevant to the needs of that customer.
Credible: - Inspiring Trust and Belief
The confidence that readers and listeners have in communication is affected by the extent to which they believe the
information and the credibility of the communicator. For messages to be effective, communicators must be trustworthy.
Congenial
The recipient of a message is more prepared to receive the message if it is congenial to or confirms a person’s own frame of
reference. This is all attitudes, experiences and presumptions that effect how a person receives issues and events.
Have a Clear Objective
An effective message must have an objective, which can be to inform, persuade, entertain, motivate etc.
Barriers to Effective Communication
The communication process is the perfect guide toward achieving effective communication. When followed properly, the
process can usually assure that the sender's message will be understood by the receiver. Although the communication process
seems simple, it in essence is not. Individuals differ very much from one another, so if is helpful that when we communicate,
we understand the nature of these differences and modify our behaviour to cope with them. In most situations however, we
are unable to communicate effectively because various factors hinder the communication process.