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NATIONALISM IN
EUROPE
Chapter 22
UNIFICATION IN ITALY
Early Movements Towards Unification in Italy
■ Risorgimento: Italian nationalistic movement with goals of unification and liberation
■ Nationalists couldn’t support their causes openly so they formed secret societies
■ Giuseppe Mazzini was a leader of the Young Italy Movement
– First democratic movement open to all classes– Insisted that a republic should rule Italy
■ In 1848 liberals and nationalists led revolts in several Italian states but only one succeeded
– Former rulers returned to power where they limited rights and jailed many
■ After the revolts, Italian liberals had little success because they could not agree amongst each
other
Early Movements Towards Unification in Italy
Catholic Clergy
Wanted a federation of Italian
states headed by the Pope
Liberals
Wanted a republic and
opposed a federation of
Italians states because the
papacy had withdrawn its
support for the revolts
Some others
Wanted a constitutional
monarchy
Specifically under King Victor
Emmanuel II of Sardinia
• There was only hope for progress in the kingdom of Sardinia because although King Victor
Emmanuel II was not very sympathetic towards the liberals, he was motivated mainly by a wish
to expand Sardinian territory
• However, his parliament and chief minister, Camillo Benso di Cavour, ( a liberal and Italian
patriot) supported the goals of the liberals
Giuseppe Garibaldi
■ Joined Mazzini’s Young Italy movement when
he was in his 20s
■ In 1834, after being involved in a
revolutionary plot, Garibaldi fled for his life to
Latin America
■ In 1848 he returned to Italy to fight in the
revolutions
■ Forced to flee again he lived in the U.S.,
North Africa, and Peru before Cavour
arranged his return to Italy in 1854
■ Celebrated as a patriot, military genius, and
quickly became a national and international
hero
Garibaldi and the Thousand
■ The southern half of the Italian Peninsula and Sicily made up the kingdom of the Two Sicilies
■ It had become a target of the Italian nationalists and Garibaldi
■ With Carvour’s approval, Garibaldi recruited an army of 1,100 soldiers
– Called Red Shirts because of the colorful uniforms worn into battle
■ Spring 1860, Garibaldi and his “Expedition of the Thousand” invaded and took Sicily
■ Quickly moved into Italy’s mainland and seized Naples and drove the Pope and his troops north
■ Garibaldi planned to continue the push north and eventually capture Rome and Venetia but
Carvour was afraid he would set up a republic or become more popular than Victor Emmanuel II
– Carvour sent an army to stop the advance
Garibaldi and the Thousand
■ Garibaldi planned to continue the push north and eventually capture Rome and Venetia but
Carvour was afraid he would set up a republic or become more popular than Victor Emmanuel II
– Carvour sent an army to stop the advance
■ In the fall of 1860, Garibaldi and Carvour met in Naples
– Garibaldi agreed to support the est of the kingdom of Italy with Victor Emmanuel II as king
■ Garibaldi did ask to be made governor of Naples
■ The king and Carvour feared his popularity and refused his request
Unification
■ During 1860s elections were held throughout Italy and the people voted overwhelmingly for national
unity under the kingdom of Sardinia
■ Victor Emmanuel II confirmed king of Italy and inaugurated on March 17
■ New kingdom included all of Italy except Venetia (held by Austria) and the Papal States around Rome
■ European gov’ts had two choices: recognize the new state or fight it
– France stopped short of war but did send troops in to protect the papacy and prevent
nationalists from seizing Rome
■ Unification was furthered when Italy gained Venetia in the Seven Weeks War of 1866
■ When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870 France recalled its troops and Italians entered
Rome
■ Citizens of Rome voted for unity with Italy and it was eventually proclaimed the capital of the kingdom
Problems of a United Italy
■ Few Italians had experience with self-government and there were a great deal of scandals
■ Various regions of the country remained divided by cultural traditions
■ Tensions between industrialized north and agricultural south
■ In Sicily leaders formed the Mafia- central gov’t had no control over them
■ Modernization was slow and the standard of living remained low
■ Labor problems
■ Political crises and changing gov’t policies
■ Attempts to gain land led to expensive war with Ottoman Empire in 1911
UNIFICATION IN
GERMANY
The Zollverein
■ The first major step toward German unity concerned the economy
■ Tariffs levied by each German state made the movement of goods from one state to
another very expensive
■ The Junkers- class of aristocratic landowners
– Complained that tariffs were hurting sales of farm products
■ Many people began a campaign for freer movement of goods and in 1818 they
persuade the king of Prussia to abolish tariffs within his territory
■ Beginning in 1820 German states began to make treaties that, in 1834, resulted in a
customs union called the Zollverein
■ By 1854 this union included most of the German states except Austria
What is the Zollverein?
■ Benefitted its members by making prices both lower and more uniform
■ Led to industrialization in the German states by…
– Providing wide, free markets for German goods
– Offering tariff protection against foreign competition
■ German states adopted uniform systems of weights, measures, and currency
■ Manufactures produced and sold more goods and the German economy worked toward unification
■ The establishment of the Zollverein did not bring about immediate political unity
– Each of the states in the German Confederation still acted independently
■ But, by making member states economically dependent on each other, the Zollverein paved the way
for political unification
Bismarck and Prussian Strength
■ William I became king of Prussia in 1861
■ Following year he appointed Otto von Bismarck (a conservative Junker politician) to the head of
the Prussian cabinet
– He built the Prussian army into a powerful war machine
■ Bismarck opposed democracy and the idea of a parliament
■ He envisioned a state that maintained authority by rewarding the obedient
– This left little room for reform
■ Bismarck could not stand idealists- said they were all talk and no action
■ Also believed that the destiny of Prussia was to lead the German people to unification
Bismarck and Prussian Strength
■ His goal was to ensure Prussian dominance of the future
German state
■ He once said Prussian policy could be carried out “not…by
speeches and majority decisions…but by iron and blood”
■ Bismarck and William I wanted to strengthen central
authority and the military but faced a challenge from the
Prussian parliament
■ When the parliament refused to approve money for a
military expansion program, Bismarck simply collected the
taxes without parliamentary authorization
– Believed the government had to keep functioning even
without agreement
Formation of the German Empire
■ Jan 18, 1871 representatives of the German states met at Versailles to issues a proclamation
declaring the formation of the German Empire
– All states except Austria
■ Berlin is made the capital of the empire
■ William I was named German emperor and Bismarck became chief minister
■ Although he did not agree with constitutions, Bismarck accepted one that united the 25 German
states in a federal form of gov’t
– Allowed rights for individual states due to the rural nature of the region
■ Each state had its own ruler as well as the right to handle its own domestic matters: education,
law enforcement, and local taxation
Formation of the German Empire
■ The federal gov’t controlled all common matters: nat’l defense, foreign affairs, commerce
■ Emperor, called the Kaiser, headed the gov’t
– Appointed the chancellor, commanded the army/navy, could declare defensive war without
approval
■ Legislative branch of the gov’t consisted of two houses
Bundesrat (Upper House)
Federal council consisting of 58 appointed members
Reichstag (legislative assembly)
400 members elected by universal male suffrage
Only limited powers- which made it almost impossible
for them to effect any liberal democratic change
■ German constitution strongly favored the interests of Prussia
– King of Prussia is also Kaiser of Germany
– Most representation in both legislative houses
Problems for the Empire
■ Dissatisfied groups formed political parties that opposed Bismarck’s policies
– Some wanted the gov’t to be more democratic, liberal, and enact social reforms
– Others feared Bismarck’s military police and growing army
■ Increasing power of other political groups in the empire increased tension between Prussia and
other German states
■ Negative relations with the Catholic Church b/c Bismarck was Protestant and didn’t trust the
church
– Many Catholics also part of a political party he regarded as an enemy (Centre Party)
■ Bismarck began the anti-Catholic program of Kulturkampf (“culture struggle”)
– Germany passed strict laws to control Catholic clergy and schools
■ Also forbade political expression from the pulpit, and required that all Catholic clergy be German
and be educated in German schools
Problems for the Empire
■ Diplomatic relations with the Vatican were broken and even more restrictive laws were put into
place
■ These policies stirred opposition and the Centre Party doubled in size
– Many non-Catholic liberals also joined the opposition
■ By 1878 Bismarck began to modify the Kulturkampf because he needed the support of the
Centre Party
■ He reestablished diplomatic relations with the papacy and had laws against Catholics eased or
repealed
■ Eventually Kulturkampf ended in failure in 1887
Industrial Development Under Bismarck
■ Germany contained a rich store of natural resources including coal and iron deposits
■ The gov’t managed railroads to promote industrial development and a system of canals to
provide cheaper transportation
■ Industrialization came later to Germany than GB and France- but this was an advantage
– They could use most advanced machinery and best methods already produced
– German scientist also added improvements and changes
■ German gov’t helped industry in many ways:
– Standardized money and banking laws
– Postal and telegraph services were centralized
– Encouraged industrialists to form cartels to control prices
– Adopted high-tariff policies to protect industries from foreign competition
Socialism in Germany
■ Industrialization led to a growing class of factory workers and the want for gov’t to pass laws that
would benefit them and regulate the industry
■ Socialist reformers went further than most and advocated gov’t ownership of major industries
■ German socialists banded together in 1869 to form the Social Democratic Party (SDP)
– Grew quickly with majority of members coming from urban workers
■ By 1877 SDP had elected 12 members to Reichstag
■ However, could only accomplish very little because Reichstag could not pass any laws the Bundersrat
opposed
– Bundersrat= aristocratic rulers
■ Reichstag did serve as a public forum in which socialist members could express grievances and make
proposals
Bismarck’s Antisocialist Campaign
■ When Social Democrats won more than 490,000 votes in an election in 1877 the chancellor
decided to use his power to fight them
■ 1878- two assassination attempts on emperor
– Neither of the would-be assassins had any connection with socialism and Bismarck new
this
■ However, he took advantage of public concern to accuse the Social Democrats of plotting the
attempts
– Emperor dissolved the Reichstag, called for new elections, and a campaign against
socialists followed
■ New laws were passed to repress the socialists
– Prohibited newspapers, books, pamphlets from spreading socialist ideas
– Banned public meetings of socialists
Bismarck’s Antisocialist Campaign
■ Despite these restrictive laws, socialists continued their efforts and gained more support with
elections
■ Bismarck began to change his tactics to try to regain control against growing opposition (like he
did with Kulturkampf)
■ He decided to grant many of the reforms the socialists proposed
– He believed this would cause fewer people would support the socialist party and it would
lose strength
■ Germany began to adopt a pioneering program of gov’t-directed social reforms
– Did not end socialism but did diminish some of worker’s complaints
The Resignation of Bismarck
■
William I dies in 1888> his son Frederick III reigned for a few months then also died> his son William II took the
throne
■
William II and OVB disagreed deeply
– Power struggle
■
When socialists made gains in 1890s election, Bismarck considered convening aristocrats to come up with new
constitution
■
William II realized this would cause chaos and asked OVB to resign
– Bismarck did but very bitter- criticized new chancellor for rest of his life
– Even elected to Reichstag but refused to serve
■
With Bismarck gone, William II set out to expand Germany’s influence in the world
– Increased size and strength of German army and navy
– Signed new agreements with neighboring nations
■
By 1900s Germany stronger than ever before
REFORMS AND
REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA
Alexander II and Reforms
■ Alexander II became czar in 1855
■ Conservative and autocratic but cared about public opinion
■ Movement towards freedom of all serfs were the first steps toward modernization
■ Serfdom reform became clearly necessary
– Obstructed development by restricting labor pool – factory owners would benefit if serfs
free
– Nobles who felt a great nation should not sanction ownership of a person also supported
reform
■ 1861 Alexander II issued the Emancipation Edict: freed all serfs
– Terms of edict compensated nobles for land which peasants could buy in small amts from
the gov’t
Alexander II and Reforms
■ Emancipation did not really improve conditions for former serfs
– Land was sold in small amts for high prices
– Couldn’t afford to buy enough land to earn the payments for the land, pay taxes, and still
make a living
■ Serfs that were unable to buy or rent land moved to growing towns and cities where they became
cheap labor for factories
■ Another reform under Alexander II was allowing rural districts to elect zemstvos
– Councils elected by all classes including peasants
– Could levy taxes and controlled social programs (health, education, aid for poor)
■ He also reformed the court system to be modeled after European system
Radicals and Government Reaction
■ Policies did not please everyone- especially conservatives
– Tried to convince the czar that these actions endangered the position of the ruler, the
nobles, and the stability of the nation
■ In 1860s many middle and upper-class intellectuals became nihilists
– Believed a just society could be created only by abolishing the existing political, economic,
and social structures and build a completely new Russia
■ In 1870s Populists urged their followers to live among the peasants as teachers and doctors
– Some believed large estates should be seized and land divided among peasants
■ After Russian gov’t arrested many Populists, some radicals turned to violent action
– Split off to a movement called People’s Will: used terrorism to force the gov’t to grant their
demands
Radicals and Government Reaction
■ Radical activity gradually made Alexander II more conservative
■ After an attempt on his life was made in 1866, he turned to repressive measures
– In 1870 major cities were granted limited elected gov’t and in 1874 military reforms were
instituted
■ In 1881 Alexander II was killed by a bomb attack by the People’s Will
■ His assassination led to an era of intensive repression
– Leader after used every available mean to stamp out liberalism
■ They revived and intensified Russification in heavy-handed discrimination against minority groups
– Sponsored massacres of Jews in riots called pogroms
■ The attempts of the Russian gov’t to block all change produced explosive situations
■ In 1898 the Social Democratic Labor Party grew increasingly radical
The Revolution of 1905
■ 1904-1905 Russia went to war with Japan over territories in China and Korea
– Surprisingly Japanese dealt the Russians a humiliating defeat
■ The loss exposed Russia’s gov’t as corrupt, inefficient, autocratic, and oppressive
– Also caused discontented groups into action
■ Jan 22, 1905: “Bloody Sunday”
– Czar’s troops shot at an unarmed strikers on their way to deliver a petition to him
■ Incident triggered the Revolution of 1905
– Workers went on strike, held demonstrations, violent street fighting broke out, and their
were mutinies in the army and navy
■ Nicholas II faced a crisis: Russian autocracy has to yield or perish
The Revolution of 1905
■ Czar issued a decree called the October Manifesto:
– Promised individual liberties and provided for the election of a Parliament called the Duma
■ However, autocracy continued
– Czar dismissed two sessions of the Duma
■ A 1907 electoral law increased the representation of large landowners and restricted voting for
others
– This led to a more conservative Duma and one more cooperative with the czar
■ Revolution of 1905 failed to overthrow the czar for three main reasons:
– 1. The army remained loyal and thus would not end the czar’s regime
– 2. The French (military alliance) lent money to the government
– 3. Many revolutionary groups were divided in their goals
UNREST IN AUSTRIAHUNGARY
Background
■ Austria was dealing with demonstrations in Vienna
– Clashes with army
■ Emperor Ferdinand ordered his chief minister (Metternich) to resign
– Later in 1848 Ferdinand himself abdicated and throne went to 18 yr old Francis Joseph I
■ Uprisings also occurred in Hungary (part of Austrian Empire)
– Most of the population were descendants of a nomadic warrior group known as Magyars
■ Strong nationalist movement centered on making the Magyars dominant in Hungary and freeing the
region from Austrian domination
■ Hungarian patriot Lajos Kossuth led a revolt in 1848
– In 1849 he was elected “responsible governor president”
■ Soon Austria and Russia joined forces to oust the revolutionaries in fear that the revolution could
spread to Russian-controlled Poland
Formation of the Dual Monarchy
■ For almost 20 yrs after the Revolution of 1848 Austria managed to keep liberalism and
nationalism from destroying its empire
■ After Austria’s defeat by Prussia in 1866 Hungarians demanded more freedom
■ Austria responded in 1867 by forming the dual monarchy (also called Austria-Hungary) in which
Hungarians shared power with Austrians
■ Had a common ruler: Francis Joseph I
– War, finance, and foreign affairs ministries conducted business for whole empire but
Austria and Hungary each had its own parliament
■
Dual Monarchy proved to be a practical economic arrangement
– Hungary gave raw materials and food while Austria produced manufactured goods
– Provided markets for each other
Formation of the Dual Monarchy
■ Many problems existed
– Austria wanted high-tariffs and Hungary favored low tariffs and freer trade
– Did not solve issue of nationalities: different languages and cultures
■ After being defeated by Prussians in the Seven Weeks War (1866) the Austrians wanted to
compensate for the loss and looked to gain influence and territory in the Balkans (controlled by
the Ottomans)
The Ottoman Empire
■ By 1800s Ottoman Empire had declined substantially
– Military defeats diminished size of empire
– Rising population difficult to feed on poor land
– Slow modernization due to economic and cultural reasons also contributed to decline
■ Subjects of the empire did not look at their rulers favorably
– Could not afford many improvements in agriculture or public works projects
■ Tax system often favored foreign interests at the expense of the citizens
■ No sense of equality in Ottoman society or gov’t affairs
Discontent in the Balkans
■ Early 1800s- rise of nationalism increased discontent in the Balkan area of Ottoman Empire
– Contained several different people who wanted to govern themselves
■ Turks tried to suppress nationalistic movements but failed
– Greece gained independence in 1829 & Serbia achieved some self-rule
■ Foreign countries intervened to promote their own interests in the struggle btwn the Turks and
nationalist groups
■ Russia supported Balkan nationalists for several reasons
– Similar Slavic background
– Shared same religion: Orthodox Christianity
– Strategy: if Ottoman Empire collapsed Russia might be able to control water route from Black
Sea to Mediterranean Sea
■ British supported the Ottomans because they did not want the Russians challenging British sea power
in the Mediterranean
The Congress of Berlin and the Balkan Wars
■ 1877: Russians declared was on Ottoman Empire
– Turks defeated and forced to sign Treaty of San Stefano is 1878
■ Treaty granted independence to Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro
– Also created autonomous Bulgaria
■ Sudden increase of Russian influence in the Balkans alarmed other European powers
– Before the treaty went into effect a group of nations, lead by Great Britain and Austria,
forced Russia to consent to an international conference
■ All the major European powers met at the Congress of Berlin in 1878
– Dealt with several territorial issues
– Size and power of the Ottoman Empire reduced