Download Russia Revision Guide

Gaynes School
History Department
Russia Revision Guide
Problems with ruling Russia
The Russian Empire covered 22.3 million Sq Kilometres
Communications were difficult
Roads were unpaved
Railways only connected small areas
1897 – terrible inequality existed in Russia
Over half of Peasants had no land or homes
Farmland was of poor quality
Farming was old fashioned and ineffective
Population was rising – food shortages were common
125.6 million people lived in Russia – most of the land/wealth/and all
power belonged to only 1 million people.
Only 55 million people spoke Russian! Over half the population were living
in a country where they could not understand the main language.
Hundreds of different nationalities tried to co-exist
Everyone was expected to conform to Russian ways – this process was
called “Russification”
Urban Problems
Moscow – pop. 1.8 million was the most industrialised city
50% of Factory workers worked there
City life was hard – work was hard to find, long hours, low pay, and
dangerous conditions existed.
Factory owners – good lifestyle, large profits.
The Tsarist System – Autocracy
From 1613 – The Tsar had been a member of the Romanov Family
The Tsar made ALL the decisions – he was advised by a Council of
Ministers, who he chose from his friends in the Nobility. He insisted on
reading every decree personally, which could delay decisions for months.
The Tsar was supported by the Russian Orthodox Church:
The Church allowed the belief that the Tsar was above criticism
The Church claimed the Tsar was chosen to rule by God
People should always obey the Tsar and his Ministers
The Tsar was supported by nobles, the Russian Orthodox Church, and the
Peasants – but the Tsar's right to rule was being questioned by modern
elements in society.
1894: Nicholas II became Tsar
N II – weak and indecisive.
Claimed “I am not ready to become Tsar -I know nothing about the
business of ruling.”
He did not consider Russia's problems:
Books and newspapers were censored to make sure they were not hostile
The Okhrana were the Secret Police – they looked for enemies of the
Tsar. They also occasionally arrested each other by accident!!
If you were an enemy, you were exiled to Siberia!
1905 Revolution
1905 – a series of demonstrations and strikes occurred against how
Russia was being run.
St Petersburg – Troops guarding the Tsar's Winter Palace fired into a
crowd of peaceful demonstrators. 130 were killed.
More strikes and unrest followed.
St Petersburg strikers formed a Soviet – a Workers' Council to organise
strikes. This became known as the Petrograd Soviet.
The result: Work in cities stopped; Soviets were organised in more towns
and cities. Soviets took over in some places – and replaced the Tsar's
Government.
The Duma
Nicholas II set up a Duma – a Parliament with 2 Houses.
One was elected by the people, to advise him.
He agreed Trade Unions and political parties could be set up.
People could hold meetings and discuss politics openly.
BUT – Nicholas II did not want to share power!!
He still believed it was his right to rule alone – and changed the voting
system so people elected to the Duma would agree with him and not
demand reforms.
Opposition to the Tsar
Three main groups had formed:
Monarchists: Supported the Tsar, and wanted him to rule alone with the
advice of a few nobles.
Constitutionalists: Wanted the Tsar's power limited by a Constitution
and a form of Parliament. The most important groups were the
Constitutional Democratic Party (AKA The Kadets); The Octobrists; and
the Progressists.
Revolutionaries: They wanted the Tsar overthrown. Social
Revolutionaries were the largest group – they wanted a revolution led by
the Peasants.
The Social Democrats wanted a revolution led by the town workers.
By 1917- Social Democrats had divided into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.
A Step Backwards?
The Tsar began to reduce the Duma's voting rights – and then stopped
calling it.
Political Parties and Trade Unions had their meetings broken up by the
Secret Police. Leaders went to prison or were exiled.
St Petersburg Soviet stopped meeting.
The Impact of the First World War
WWI was a turning point for the Tsar and for Russia.
At first – going to war was popular. Russia was part of the Triple Entente
with France and Great Britain.
Problems in the War
Russia was at a disadvantage – poor transport system, inefficient
industry and agriculture.
The Army was badly trained and ill-equipped
Some soldiers had no rifle – they picked one up when one of their
comrades were shot!
The Battle of Tannenberg: Major battle between Russia and Germany in
the first month of WWI. It was fought between 26-30 August 1914.
It resulted in the destruction of the Russian Second Army. The
Commanding General, Alexander Samsonov, committed suicide as a
consequence.
First Battle of the Masurian Lakes: The Germans pushed the Russian
Army back across its entire front, ejecting it from Germany.
The Russian Army had suffered a crushing defeat.
By 1915, the Russian Army had lost over 2 million men – either killed,
wounded, or taken prisoner.
Large parts of Four Provinces had also gone – including a major coal
mining district.
August 1915: The Tsar appointed himself Commander-in-chief of the
Army – this meant the Army's defeat would be seen as his personal
failure.
Rise of Rasputin
With the Tsar at war, he left his wife, Tsarina Alexandra, in charge of
Russia as his Deputy.
The Tsarina was German and not popular with the people. She was
referred to by some as “the German Whore”. Some suggested that due
to her birth, she was secretly in league with the enemy.
Rasputin, born a peasant, was an insane and corrupt monk, who claimed to
have powers of healing. He had won favour with the Tsarina by promising
to heal her sickly son, Alexei. (Heir to the throne).
The Tsarina and Rasuptin advised the Tsar in military strategies – and
dominated the Holy Synod.
Nobles who had supported the monarchy were humiliated by this.
The people felt betrayed- who was actually in charge of Russia?
Impact of WWI
The war had exacerbated Russia's social and economic problems by 1917:
Over 15 million were in the army – mostly through Conscription (having to
join rather than deciding to join.)
The conscription of peasants and factory workers meant increased food
shortages and falling factory production.
The Army also needed horses – farmers could no longer plough and
transport began to fail further.
Fertiliser production collapsed as the factories moved to war work – this
made farming even more difficult!
Cities now had chronic food shortages – and 6 million extra people had
moved there to work as part of the war effort.
Inflation – major problem during the war that cancelled out wage
increases. In October 1916 the Petrograd Security Police reported that
'While the wages of the masses have risen 50 per cent, and only in
certain categories 100 to 200 per cent (metal workers, machinists,
electricians), the prices on all products have increased 100 to 500 per
cent.'
Transport – Transport was poor and badly maintained before WWI.
During the war, it was needed to move the army – and simply could not
cope with the daily demands as well.
Ready to Revolt?
People who suffered most – workers in the Northern Cities.
1914-16: Food supplies fell by 25%; Infant Mortality doubled.
1917 – Crime rate in the cities had TRIPLED!!
Leaders of the Soviets began to hold more meetings – they blamed
shortages and conditions on Government incompetence.
The Tsar was no longer receiving automatic respect or loyalty. This
meant a revolt could now happen.
February 1917 Revolution
Petrograd – Very cold for the first few months!
Too cold for trains to run – people would queue for bread only to find
there was no fuel or flour for bakers to bake!
Strikes and riots became prevalent in cities.
Key dates of events that led to the Revolution:
19 February – Government officials announced bread rationing would
start on 1 March
21 February – managers of the Putilov Works locked out some workers –
this led to a spreading strike.
23 February – International Women's Day – large groups of women
marched to demand equal rights.
This led to marches against bread shortages – the police and troops could
not stop them.
24th February – 150,000 workers took to the streets armed with metal
bars/tools
A mass protest was held – demonstrations spread as the day wore on.
No arrests were made – skilled workers/shopkeepers/office workers
began to join them.
25th February – 200,000 took to the streets.
Banners were waved - “Down with the Tsar!”
The Tsar – sent a telegram ordering the Petrograd troops to “put down
the disorders by tomorrow”.
26th February – troops were ordered to fire at demonstrators.
This was a turning point – some refused, and joined with the protestors!
Others fired – the following day they refused to leave the Petrograd
barracks, and shot their commanding officer.
They then joined the people – this turned unrest into revolution.
No one was prepared for this – certainly not the Tsar!
The Army – brought weapons – organised the workers.
Soldiers and workers fought together – they captured the main weapons
store.
They also fought the police – they had stayed loyal to the Government
27-28 February – the prisons were stormed
The Duma had a choice – support the Tsar or the revolt?
A new Government
27 February – the Duma had an opportunity to take control
Revolution was spreading to other towns and cities
The Duma met in one part of the Tauride Palace – the Petrograd Soviet
met in another part.
2 March – agreement was made that a Provisional Government would be
set up to “unofficially” run things.
PG would be supported by the Petrograd Soviet as long as it worked to 8
principles, which were:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Political prisoners/exiles to be freed or allowed to return to Russia
Freedom of speech, press, and to hold meetings
No class, religious, or nationality discrimination
Preparations to begin for electing a Constituent Assembly to write
a constitution.
All police organisations to be replaced by an elected people'ss
militia
Local government to be elected
Military units that took part in the revolution should not be
disbanded or sent to the front to fight
Off duty soldiers to have the same rights as civilians
Petrograd Soviet issued Order no 1 to the army in Petrograd. This
stated that the army must obey the Provisional Government, “except
where the orders contradict those of the Petrograd Soviet.”
Abdication of the Tsar
The Tsar did return to Petrograd – too little, too late!
His advisers suggested it would be better for him to abdicate than to try
and work with the Duma. He did not even make it to St Petersburg.
He did abdicate in favour of his brother – Michael. Michael refused to be
crowned, Nicholas was taken prisoner.
Causes of the February Revolution
The First World War – conscription and the pressures it put on the
population
Food shortages and transport issues
The Tsarina and Rasputin – who was actually running the country?
The Tsar’s behaviour – by choosing to become leader of the Army, he
made himself personally responsible for the army’s failings.
Think about what other factors caused this – try drawing them in a mind
map and linking them.
The Provisional Government
At first – popular
People had high expectations of the PG, which included:
Taking Russia out of the war
Providing more effective Government
Improving working conditions in towns/cities
Solving shortage problems
Redistributing property more equally
The PG's problems
It only considered itself to be temporary
It had no real power – it was dependent on the support of the Army and
the Petrograd Soviet to stay in power
Many reforms relied on the PG controlling more of Russia than it did. It
only had control over towns/cities in the NORTH of Russia.
The shortages were not easy to solve – and the unrest//disruption made
the supply situation worse.
The PG sent more troops to the front as it felt it could not desert
Russia's allies in WW1.
But – it did have several achievements:
It made an 8 hour working day legal
People could hold public meetings
Political parties could form.
Political prisoners had been released
However – giving people these freedoms meant they could criticise what
the Provisional Government had done.
Growth of Bolshevik Power
Revolutionaries returned to Russia after the Tsar was overthrown. Lenin
was one.
Lenin – Marxist, who believed in the following cycle:
Feudalism – Bourgeouis Revolution – Socialism – Communism
Lenin had a list of aims for the Bolsheviks – the April Theses.
He believed the Provisional Government was the result of the Bourgeois
Revolution and the Bolsheviks had to work for the workers' revolution.
Lenin's key point was that they should work against the PG – not cooperate with it!
He also argued Russia needed to leave WWI
Provisional Government – the first did not last.
5 May 1917 – Second PG – had members from all the main political groups
except the Bolsheviks.
Bolsheviks began to gain support – people of Petrograd now believed they
were the only real supporters of change/leaving the war.
March 1917 – PG had introduced bread rationing.
War was still draining resources
Transport was still crippled due to the war
June 1917 – Another failed offensive was launched by generals
Autumn 1917 – 2 million soldiers had deserted the war.
Bolsheviks – capitalised on these problems:
Lenin – gave speeches – used simple slogans: “Peace, Bread, Land” and “All
Power to the Soviets”
June 1917 – 41 newspapers were circulating in major cities, criticising the
PG.
Red Guards of armed workers – these were set up by the Bolsheviks. By
July, there were 10,000 in Petrograd.
Lenin had a major problem – the PG was so unpopular that there was a
fear workers would rise against it before the Bolsheviks were fully
prepared.
The July Days:
July 1917 – another planned uprising occurred in Petrograd.
This was the people's reaction to the war – to bread shortages, rationing,
and a lack of reforms.
July uprising – smaller than February, but people were chanting Bolshevik
slogans.
PG – did what the Tsar did – sent in the troops.
Trotsky and other leaders were arrested. Lenin escaped and went into
hiding.
Third Provisional Government
PG reformed again – this time led by Alexander Kerensky – only member
who had been both in the Duma and Petrograd Soviet. He took three
weeks to choose a Government.
Lavr Kornilov- an anti-Revolution general was chosen to command the
army.
New PG – set out reforms of industry and land ownership to start before
the November elections.
Workers became less annoyed – but landowners/business owners were
not pleased.
Countryside – the peasants were beginning to rise up and take the
landowners' land/food supplies
Bolsheviks – still building support – but were worried about a counterrevolution from those who wanted the Tsar to come back on the throne.
Kornilov's revolt
28 August – Kornilov acted
Disturbed by unrest in towns and countryside, Kornilov pushed Kerensky
to impose martial law and break the power of the soviets.
Kerensky – did he want the support of Kornilov or the Soviets?
He pushed Kornilov to advance on Petrograd – then he claimed that
Kornilov was leading a coup against the Revolution! Kerensky armed the
Bolshevik Red Guards and sent them to stop him.
Kornilov and troops were persuaded to stop – but Kornilov and 7,000
followers were arrested.
Kerensky – tried to claim he had saved the revolution – but this failed.
He became less popular – the Bolsheviks were now seen as the saviours of
the Revolution instead.
31 August – Petrograd Soviet election – Bolsheviks won the most seats
Many workers now believed the Bolsheviks were the party of the people.
Bolshevik Takeover and Consolidation of Power – 1917 – 1924
October Revolution
10 October – Lenin had secretly returned from exile in Finland
22 October – the Provisional Government could not control the growing
violence in the cities – German troops were almost in Petrograd.
Kerensky – advised by the generals to give up. Kerensky did nothing. He
believed the openness of the revolutionaries meant the revolution would
not happen!!
24 – 26 October – The Bolsheviks took control of Petrograd, through a
plan devised by Leo Trotsky.
Taking control:
Lenin announced elections for a new Constituent Assembly would take
place in November.
A new group – the Council of People's Commissars would rule until then by
decree
Congress of Soviets elected a new group – the Central Executive
Committee – but this was also Bolshevik controlled
25 October – Those who disagreed with the Bolsheviks had walked out –
the CPC approved by what was left of Congress, had elected approval.
The Bolsheviks – why did they win?
Several key reasons for the B's success!
1. Lenin insisted the revolution was only Bolshevik led- and not shared
with several parties
2. Provisional Government – failed to disarm the Red Guard after they
defeated Kornilov
3. PG – failed to judge the threat correctly – did not think the
Bolsheviks were a danger.
4. The PG made no social reforms, and allowed Russia to stay in
WWI – this only succeeded in alienating the people futher.
5. Trotsky – he organised the takeover exceptionally well.
Trotsky's plan – he took over the telephone and telegraph offices, and
railway stations – the PG could not get help. He also organised the Red
Guard and army/navy volunteers to work together carefully.
The Bolsheviks proved their leadership was decisive – the PG failed to do
this.
Imposing Control
25 October – Lenin said elections for the Constituent Assembly weree to
go ahead on 12 November. The CPC passed several important decrees:
1. Capital punishment – abolished
2. Power in the towns and countryside was given to local soviets
3. Peace Decree – demanded all nations negotiate at once for peace.
(Lenin was determined to pull Russia out of the war)
4. Land decree – all land owned by the Tsar/church/landowners was
taken and given to the peasantry. This immediately made the Bs
popular with the Peasants!
5. The Workers' Decree – the CPC announced this would give the
workers control over the factories and an 8 hour day.
Decrees were hard to enforce
Counter- revolutionary groups had started.
Trotsky wanted to work with other groups – Lenin wanted complete
control.
12 November – results were a shock – Bolsheviks gained 175 seats – but
the Socialist Revolutionary party gained 370!
Brest-Litovsk Treaty
Lenin wanted to pull Russia out of the war – the Germans demanded a
high price.
22 December 1917 – Treaty of Brest Litovsk signed.
Russia gave Germany: 80% of its coalmines; 50% of its industry; 26% of
its railways; 26% of its people; 27% of its farmland.
This infuriated many Bolsheviks – Lenin had to sign it, as he knew they
could not afford to fight a Civil war and the World War!!
5 January 1918 – Constituent Assembly met – argued against Bolshevik
reforms – would not pass them as laws.
Lenin – sent people away using the Red Guard – Lenin and the CPC were
now in charge, but with many enemies.
Civil War
War began between Bolsheviks and the groups who wanted to run Russia
themselves. They were called the Whites.
Whites – consisted of:
Kerensky and his troops
Kornilov and the Volunteer Army who wanted the Tsar to return
Russia's WWI allies – Britain, France, Japan, USA
Kolchak – former Naval Commander who took control in Siberia and
organised attacks against the Bolsheviks
Czech Legion – 40,000 Czech soldiers who had been in the Tsar's army
At first, the Whites had more troops, money, and supplies - and foreign
assistance.
28 January – Trotsky became the people's Commissar for War – set up
the Red Army
Key events of the Civil War:
12 March 1918 – Bolsheviks moved the capital to Moscow
Whites seems most likely to win through organising advance attacks on
Moscow
22 October 1918 – White armies were on the outskirts of Petrograd
Trotsky organised a counter attack
Early Nov 1919 – the Allies gave up sending men/supplies – whites were
spread too thinly to win.
Troops began to desert to the Red Army – Czech Legion went home!!
April 1920 – Red Army drove a Polish attack back into Poland – failed to
start a Communist Revolution there.
Bolsheviks had won the Civil War – and preserved the Revolution.
Why did the Bolsheviks win the Civil War?
War Communism – the Bolsheviks took control of all food supplies and
distributed it, and also took over factories.
They enlarged the Red Army
They used the Cheka – the Secret Police – to clamp down on political
opposition and to make arrests – this was known as the Red Terror.
Patriotic Russians backed the Reds – the Whites were supported by
foreign troops - who withdrew support when it became clear the Reds
would win.
The Bolsheviks controlled communications and transport
The Whites had no shared plan other than to get rid of the Bolsheviks
The Red Army were in the “interior lines and at the centre and therefore
Trotsky could move men around more quickly.
Trotsky was an inspiring leader – gave speeches, tobacco, and other
luxuries. Even threatened and executed those leaders who he doubted
the loyalty of.
Impact of the Civil War:
Russia was devastated by the Civil War – the country had been at war
since 1914. Effects of this were:
Shortages of food and fuel
Army casualties
Loss of workers in towns
Damaged land, property, road and rail links and telgraph lines
Civilian casualties
Skilled workers/professionals had left the country to live and work
somewhere safer
Bolsheviks – lost support. War Communism and Red Terror alienated
people.
No peace, land or bread!!
The Civil War had given the Bolsheviks experience of ruling – but on
military lines. They were now used to giving and enforcing orders with
violence if necessary.
1920 – things reached their lowest point:
Peasants – hiding food/animals and planting less
Loss of farmland/effects of war/reduced planting – crop production was
only 37% of production in 1913.
Prices – risen too rapidly – money was now almost worthless
Drought – this dried up crops – people starved.
Civil War – people were beginning to feel it had made things worse.
The Bolsheviks had to try and re-build a new Society – they changed
their party name to the Communist Party in 1918.
1918 – Russia became the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic
1922 – Russia became the Soviet Union.
Constitution 10 July 1918 – new system of Government set out.
All workers could vote – if you made a living out of others work you
couldn't!
Local Soviets elected deputies to the Congress of Soviets
The Congress chose the Central Executive Committee – this chose the
Council of People's Commissars – these people ran the 18 Ministries that
ran the country
CPC made laws – needed approval of the CEC and Congress of Soviets
December 1920 – Constitution was changed to let the CPC pass laws
without approval.
The Constitution stated that:
All land and all business with 10 workers or more – belonged to the State
Everything must be run for the people's benefit
Free speech, and free press were given – and free education and medical
care were promised.
But this was only theory – Russia could not implement this in practice!
The Civil War had meant measures taken that did not fit these beliefs:
High levels of State control were imposed
Workers' committees were suppressed
Executions were used
The Army and Cheka were used to control political opposition.
1921 – Turning Point
This was a year of crisis – by 1920 farm production was 37% of 1913
levels.
Food shortages turned into famine – this led to starvation and even
cannibalism!
Industries were producing NO consumer goods – riots and strikes were
erupting.
Kronstadt Mutiny
Kronstadt – Naval base near Petrograd – the sailors had sided with the
revolutionaries
March 1921 – they called for a “third Revolution” and mutinied
They made the following demands:
Re-election of all soviets by secret ballot
freedom of speech for workers/peasants/revolutionary political parties
freedom for all political prisoners
end of the Red Terror
Free trade unions
freedom for the peasants to farm how they wanted
They thought they were being true to the 1917 Revolution – they were
crushed by the Red Army.
War Communism – turned into the New Economic Policy
NEP:
Move from Communism back towards Capitalism! This was a major change
of Lenin's policy – consider why it changed!
Money was re-introduced
State stopped taking crops from the peasants – they could see food if
they liked as a profit – but had to pay the state 10% of the profit in tax
The state kept control of big industries – factories with under 20
workers could be privately owned and run for profit.
Experts could be brought in to run factories!
Anyone could open a shop to sell or hire goods for a profit – they became
known as NEPmen!
Did the NEP work?
It did revive farming and industry
Return to using money re-built confidence – small scale trading helped
the economy
Lenin – poor health from 1920 onwards
Died – 21 January 1924
He died from several strokes – was seen as a hero by many Russians
Petrograd – renamed Leningrad in his honour
Russia under Stalin – 1924 – 39
Leadership Contest
2 main candidates – Trotsky and Stalin
Different characters and views – fears the party would split!
Lenin named the Politburo to take over – 7 members were involved.
Trotsky – Stalin – Rykov were also in the CPC. They competed for power.
Stalin – strengths: ambitious; felt the Soviet Union was backward in
agriculture and industry; he believed the SU needed to modernise quickly
to protect itself from Western Capitalism.
He was charming – had a quick temper. Suspicious mind!
Clever – excellent organiser and planner. Member of the Politburo by
1922 and General Secretary of the Communist Party.
He kept close to Lenin in Moscow.
Trotsky – more popular than Stalin.
Stalin began to try and discredit him – possibly lied to stop Trotsky
attending Lenin's funeral! He stopped Lenin's Testament being read to
the Congress of Soviets.
Trotsky was removed – he criticised Lenin and the NEP in 1924. By 1927
he was expelled from the Communist Party – 1928 exiled to Kazakhstan 1929 – exiled from the Soviet Union.
Stalin pushed Zinoviev and Kamanev out – both were expelled in 1926 and
1927 respectively.
1928 – Stalin was leader of the Party and USSR.
The Police State, Purges, and Terror
1922 – the Cheka was reformed as the GPU (State Political
Administration) – then as the OGPU - Unified State Political
Administration.
Elements of terror were in place when Stalin took over – did he exploit
these and make it worse?
OGPU: dealt with “political” crimes
Could arrest anyone
Torture people for information
Put people in camps
Organise stitch-up trials
Could look for evidence of sabotage by anti-Communists
Prison Camps
These were isolated in the countryside
1920 – 250,000 prisoners had been sent to these camps – prisoners were
used as cheap labour
Climate of Fear
Cheka – intended their methods to scare people – exacerbated under
Stalin.
Stalin – expanded the OGPU's powers – people were encouraged to
inform on anybody including friends and family
1928 – 30,000 people were in camps
1938 – 7 MILLION people were in camps!!!
Gulag – Department that ran them. Name soon applied to the camps!
The Purges
1934 – Stalin feared opposition to himself and the state – began to move
to get rid of those who he believed were enemies.
Those purged – either executed, exiled, or moved to Labour camps.
Part of this was due to changes Stalin had made to raise productivity in
industry and farming – if there were failures, the State thought this was
political sabotage – not incompetence! Purges were used to “correct” this!
1936 – 38 – The Great Terror – purges were worse at this this point!
OGPU purged: The Politburo – The Communist Party – teachers –
engineers, scientists, industrial workers – armed forces – secret police!
1939 – purges moved to the local level, including schools and colleges, and
local party.
The Trials
Show trials were a key part of Stalin's dictatorship. They were designed
to show the population that any disagreement would not be tolerated, and
people would find themselves treated harshly and in public!
How did they begin?
1934 – Kirov – Politburo member – murdered on possibly Stalin's orders.
1936 – Show Trials began – 16 “Old Bolsheviks” (those who had been
leaders of the 1917 Revolution – were tried for treason and Kirov's
assassination.
40,000 suspects were arrested for trial by the OGPU – the trials only
lasted a few minutes – all were found guilty!
Some were shot – others sent to the Gulag (camps)
Why were the trials important?
The trials provided justification for removing those who disagreed with
Stalin - the people could see that these individuals were guilty.
The accused usually confessed – this gave justification for their deaths
The trials implied that the Revolution was in danger from elements within
the Soviet Union – people were more likely to unite behind Stalin to
protect it.
The trials also made people scared – people were less likely to be critical
or complain about Stalin's regime.
The effect of the purges/Show Trials:
After 1938 – Purges slowed. But they had long term consequences:
Atmosphere of fear and mistrust created – no one knew who to trust –
this led to enforced obedience and also resentment
People's trust in the justice system was destroyed
A million people died
7 million people were sent to prison
The State lost useful people at all levels: 1 million of 3 million party
members were lost;
93 of the 139 Central Committee members
13 of the top 15 generals in the Red Army
The State lost a lot of skilled workers – this reduced factory production
Stalin had created a government/party almost completely loyal to him –
this meant the country was weaker as a result.
Propaganda
The combination of show trials, propaganda, and purges all assisted Stalin
in keeping control over the Soviet Union. You need to decide which factor
had the biggest or least impact in achieving this!
Propaganda – using information to push people to behave/think in a
particular way.
Stalin's motives for using propaganda:
Turn people against his enemies
Get people to accept his decisions
Get people to accept/put up with hardships
Get people to work harder
To build “the Cult of Stalin”
Propaganda took several forms – radio, newspapers, books, songs, poems,
films.
Each new policy had its own propaganda campaign to accompany it!
Foreign visitors – had to travel under state supervision – taken to show
homes to give the belief that workers had better lives than they actually
did!
Education – very important tool!!
Bolsheviks did provide free education – they wanted to erase the high
levels of illiteracy in the Soviet Union.
Stalin – used schools to spread propaganda
Textbooks – full of propaganda
Teachers – purged if they did not teach the acceptable party line
History – altered according to Stalin's view
Children – encouraged to denounce those family members who were seen
as anti-Stalinist
Cult of Lenin to Cult of Stalin
Stalin did not discredit Lenin after the other man's death – he built up a
Cult of Lenin, making him seem more important.
Cult of Stalin
Stalin – everywhere in the Soviet Unio
Papers – posters – articles
He was visible
People wrote to him asking for help!
1936 Constitution
Stalin set up a new Constitution – praised as “most democratic system in
the world”
Historians consider it to be mostly propaganda
Supreme Soviet – composed of the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of
Nationalities now ran the country
Everyone could vote and voted directly for representatives
Everyone was guaranteed the right to work, the right to education, and
right to healthcare
Local laws of 15 republics – as important as “national laws” from Moscow
Supreme Soviet – only met for a few days each year
Politburo – still had the real power
The Communist Party was still the only real party!
State controlled officials chose all the candidates for elections – people
were going to choose someone approved of by the State
Freedoms from arrest without a proper trial – ignored in the interest of
national security
Official Culture
Stalin – wanted a culture of “social realism” - everyone should understand
everything, and it should be available to everyone.
Education – he thought this was important.
He did not like “high” culture – art, poetry, music, and writing had to be
patriotic and deliver a simple message only.
Culture was now part of the propaganda system. Censorship was rife of
what could and could not be printed or published.
If you wrote poetry or music that did not fit in with Stalin's view you
were an “enemy of the people”.
Stalin had his own favourite painters/writers/singers
His favourites could fall into disfavour at any time – Sergei Eisenstein, a
film maker, was an example of this.
The past was also censored – books, photos, and documents were
destroyed.
Photos were also censored with people who had fallen out of favour with
Stalin being removed, or whose role in the revolution he wanted to
discredit.
Censorship – acted as a warning to would- be opponents
Economic and Social Changes - 1928-39
Change was needed – Stalin wanted to push the Soviet Union away from
NEP policies towards Communism.
He wanted the USSR to compete with the West – become self-sufficient
– defend itself against attempts to destroy Communism.
2 major changes to achieve this – Collectivisation and industrialisation
Collectivisation
Stalin – needed the peasants to produce more food – so workers in towns
had enough to eat – and to export grain to make money for industry
He disliked the Kulaks – rich peasants he saw as the enemy of Communism
He wanted to move farming from small peasant owned farms to large
modern collective farms would solve all his problems – this would destroy
the Kulaks and increase food production.
Collective farms – 2 types:
Sovkozy – large, state farms run by a manager
Kolkhozy – run by committes of peasants
Both had to farm how they were told by the Commissariat of Agriculture
Land belonged to the state – peasants had to meet production tagets for
crops
They told the state what their collective needed to feed people and have
seed for the next year – approved by the State
Peasants could not leave to work in towns – organised into brigades of
families
Hours and jobs – set by the state
Seed and equipment were provided by the state
1935 – Peasants got an acre of land to farm themselves
It was variable of how much the state provided.
Objections and the Kulaks
Most peasants were opposed to collectivisation
They disliked being told what to do, what animals to breed, and what to
grow
They did not want set hours or fines
The kulaks objected the most – they had made a profit under the NEP
Officials – wanted to believe that the peasants supported the state, and
therefore the kulaks were the real problem!
Kulaks – were often the most organised and educated in a village – and
were seen as leaders. Some kulaks were feared and hated – but in most
villages, Kulaks and Peasants worked well together.
Resistance:
Many villages did not join a Kolkhoz.
They carried on with previous farming methods – and did not feel they
should produce food to feed industrial workers.
1928 – the state began to enforce Collectivisation.
Peasants – killed animals – hid seed, crops, and tools – some burned their
homes.
1929-33 – Over half the pigs and a quarter of the cows in the country
were slaughtered.
Stalin's reaction:
He sent official to find hidden tools/crops/meat – if they failed he sent
the army.
Kulaks were purged – between 1930-31 about 600,000 farms were “de
kulakised”
1932 onwards – any peasant who did not join a farm was seen as a kulak.
If you resisted arrest, you were shot. Many did not survive the journeys
to the camps.
Failures of Collectivisation
1932-33 – Famine – 3 million people starved
Peasants were resentful of collectivisation - worked to rule!!
Machinery was damaged – deliberately or accidentally through misue
1935 – the state introduced a Kolkhoz charter that allowed peasants an
acre of land for crops and to keep cows and pigs.
Machinery was often made badly and not fixed properly by unskilled
workers. MT Stations could not really cope.
Successes of Collectivisation
1935 – 90% of farmland was collectivised
More young people went to agriculture school – learned how to farm more
effectively and efficiently
Fall in grain production and numbers of animals began to recover
1934 – rationing of bread ended – state control of food was a lot easier
State could distribute surplus grain stocks and exported grain to buy
imports needed for industrialisation.
Industrialisation and the Five Year Plans
Gosplan – the State Planning Committee – was set up in 1921
1928 – Gosplan organised “Five Year Plans” for industry
Command Economy – the state decided what was to be produced, where,
when, and who was producing it.
Five Year Plans – set targets – each factory/mine/electricity plant had
its own set of targets and these were reviewed regularly.
First focus Heavy industry – building factories and industrial towns – this
brought a lot of propaganda in to encourage and convince workers.
1928-32 - 1st Five Year Plan:
Targets set for coal, iron, steel, electricity and oil.
End of 1929 – posters were urging workers to complete it in four years.
And they did according to official statistics – but the actual targets
were not met until the late 1940s.
1933-37: 2nd Five Year Plan
Began early – targeted same industries as the first plan set high targets
for tractors and combine harvesters – and extending the railways. It met
its targets
1938-41 – 3rd Five Year Plan
Luxury consumer items – radios/bikes
Interrupted by the Soviet Union joining WWII in 1941.
The Stakhanovite Movement
Alexei Stakhanov became famous during the second Five Year Plan. He
was a coal miner.
In one shift he mined 102 tons in a 6 hour shift – Gosplan encouraged
other workers to copy him and do more than their original target.
Stakhanov had done preparation before and other workers had assisted
him!
Stakhanovite groups were set up over the country-regular competitions
held to see who could hit the highest production targets. The
Stakhanovite workers were sent into factories to explain new techniques
and encourage production, in a move to mass production.
Workers who did follow the Stakhanovite example got better rations,
better housing, and rewards – this caused its own problems.
Achievements:
Propaganda was used to exaggerate the rate of industrialisation and to
push workers to make better efforts.
But – the Soviet Union still achieved a great deal by 1930.
It repeled the German invasion in 1941.
Unemployment dropped sharply – higher standard of living for most
people.
By 1939 – 56 million people were living in towns and cities with paved
roads, electricity, brick houses, and drains. A decade earlier it was only
26 million!
Problems
Workers were aiming for high production – not good quality work
Shortages of material and goods meant some people took bribes and a
black market
Many workers – not properly trained
Factories did not have many safety features
Pollution from factories
Solving problems was difficult – bureacracy was slow and inefficient
Life in the Soviet Union
1939 – new society was emerging – was life more equal by this point?
Society – not all equal – a huge state bureacracy existed – most party
officials had a better standard of living than the workers.
Stalin lived rather like the Tsar – he had a group of officials that were
his favourites and had extra privileges.
Groups of workers – people were either in favour with the state or not.
Those in favour got rewards – tickets to concerts, days off, extra food,
better jobs.
Those not in favour got poorer housing and less social rights.
At worst – became enemies of the people – sent to camps or regions of
Kazakhstan.
Ethnicity
Stalinist propaganda encouraged the equality of the republics of the
Soviet Union.
State encouraged Russification – a dominant Russian culture.
March 1938 – Russian became a compulsory second language in all schools
But Russification was patchy and most strictly enforced among groups
seen as most likely to resist.
Religions
Atheism was encouraged – religion was scorned – people weere deported
simply for their religious beliefs!!
1940 – number of churches had dropped from 54, 000 to 500.
Role of Women
Bolsheviks introduced several reforms benefiting women:
Non-church marriage was approved
Divorce was made simpler
Women had voting rights equal to men
Equal pay for equal work
Equal educational opportunities
But – these were not enforced – 1928 – under 3 million women were
working, mostly in farming or as domestic servants.
1940 – 13 million women were working, in all types of industries!
Managers were predominantly male.
The state needed women to work as a necessity – so the state had to
help women to work and also run homes. Free childcare was provided until
kids could go to school, and canteens were set up for parents and
children at work and school.
But – the state did not provide enough – long waiting lists. Factory
nurseries were badly over crowded.
Living and Working Conditions
New towns – workers had housing better than previously.
But most workers only had one room and shared a kitchen
1939 – 4.3 sq m was the average living space. Officials got more.
1928 – most factories had only one state manager – some foreign workers
were deported.
State stopped free trade unions.
Managers could sack workers and set wages without any agreement.
Workers usually worked five days for a 6-7 jour shift
1934 – workers were paid by the amount they produced – no set wages –
the rewards system encouraged production.
A work passport system was set up – workers could move looking for
better jobs. But these were widely forged – 1937 30% of workers were
changing their jobs every 3 months!