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Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Congrats to the Phillies and Rays!! Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings All Time Worst Mascots! Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Dartmouth’s “Keggy the Keg” Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Xavier’s “Blue Blob” Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Alabama’s “Crimson Tide” (this is an adjective and a verb folks) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings UC Santa Barbara’s “Slug” Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Upper Limb The upper limb consists of the arm (brachium), forearm (antebrachium), and hand (manus) Thirty-seven bones form the skeletal framework of each upper limb Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Arm The humerus is the sole bone of the arm It articulates with the scapula at the shoulder, and the radius and ulna at the elbow Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Arm Tubercles: Greater & lesser separated by intertuberchlar sulcus (bicipital groove) Site of muscle attachment for the rotator cuff muscles The intertubercular sulcus guides a tendon of the biceps to its attachment point at the rim of the glenoid cavity Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Arm Surgical neck: common site of fractures Deltoid tuberosity: attachment site of the deltoid muscle of the shoulder Radial groove: marks the course of the radial nerve Medial and lateral epicondyles which are points of muscle attachment Coronoid fossa (anterior) and olecranon fossa (posterior): depressions that allow the corresponding processes of the ulna to move freely Radial fossa: receives the head of the radius when the elbow is flexed Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Forearm (antebrachium): Radius and Ulna Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.24 Forearm Can palpate the radius and ulna along their entire length…unless you are very muscle bound radioulnar joints: joints where the radius & ulna articulate both proximally and distally Interosseous membrane: connects the radius & ulna along their entire length The radius and ulna form an “X” when pronated. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ulna Slightly longer than the radius Forms the elbow joint w/ the humerus Proximal end bears: Olecranon process Coronoid process These processes are separated by the trochlear notch These processes “grip” the trochlea of the humerus (hinge joint) Thus, when fully extended, the olecranon process of the ulna locks into the olecranon fossa of the humerus and prevents hyperextension Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Radius The major forearm bone contributing to the wrist The superior surface of the head is concave and articulates w/ the capitulum of the humerus Medially, the head articulates with the radial notch of the ulna Major markings include: the radial tuberosity: anchor site for the biceps ulnar notch: located distally and articulates w/ the ulna styloid process: anchoring site for ligaments running to the wrist Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Radius and Ulna Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.24 Pelvis (Hip) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.27a Comparison of Male and Female Pelves Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Table 7.4.1 Comparison of Male and Female Pelves Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Table 7.4.2 Pelvic Girdle (Hip) Attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton Transmits the weight from the upper body to the lower body Supports the visceral organs of the pelvis Lacks mobility, but has greater stability Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ilium The ilium is a large flaring bone that forms the superior region of the coxal bone It consists of a body and a superior winglike portion called the ala (where the iliac crests are found) Sites of muscle attachment are: Anterior superior iliac spine Posterior inferior iliac spine Posterior superior iliac spine Anterior inferior iliac spine Greater Sciatic notch: passage for the sciatic nerve to the thigh Gluteal surface: consists of the posterior, anterior, and inferior gluteal lines. Serves as the attachment of the gluteal muscles Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ilium The auricular surface articulates with the sacrum forming the sacroiliac joint The weight of the body is transferred through the spine to the pelvis through this joint Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ischium The ischium forms the posteroinferior part of the hip bone The thick body articulates with the ilium, and the thinner ramus articulates with the pubis anteriorly Ischial spine: projects medially into the pelvic cavity Is the point of attachment for the sacrospinous ligament running from the saccrum Lesser sciatic notch: passage for nerves and blood vessels to serve the anogenital area Ischial tuberosity: a thickened area that is the strongest part of the hip bones (You are sitting on it right now!!!) Also functions as the attachment site for the muscels of the hamstring Sacrotuberous ligament: a massive ligament running from the sacrum to each ischial tuberosity. Functions to hold the pelvis together Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Pubis: Medial and Lateral Views Medial Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lateral Figure 7.27c Pubis The pubic bone forms the anterior portion of the hip bone It articulates with the ischium and the ilium The urinary bladder rests upon it Pubic crest: lateral end is the pubic tubercle and the attachment point for the inguinal ligament Obturator foramen: passage way for blood vessels and nerves, but is mostly filled with fibrous membranes Pubic symphisis joint: where the bodies of the 2 pubic bones are joined by a fibrocartilage disc Pubic arch: the acuteness of the angle of this structure defines a male vs. female hip Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic Structure Male pelvis Tilted less forward Adapted for support of heavier male build and stronger muscles Cavity of true pelvis is narrow and deep Female pelvis Tilted forward, adapted for childbearing True pelvis defines birth canal Cavity of the true pelvis is broad, shallow, and has greater capacity Female Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Male Pelvic Structure and Child Bearing The pelvic brim separates the false (greater) and true (lesser) pelvis False pelvis: Supports abdominal viscera Does not restrict childbirth True pelvis: Surrounded by bone Contains the pelvic organs Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Pelvic Structure Pelvic inlet IS the pelvic brim During child birth, the soon-to-be-newborn’s forehead faces one ilium and it’s occiput faces the other ilium. Pelvic outlet IS the inferior margin of the true pelvis After the baby’s head passes the inlet, the baby rotates to an anterio-posterior orientation with the forehead facing posteriorly Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Lower Limb The three segments of the lower limb are the thigh, leg, and foot They carry the weight of the erect body, and are subjected to exceptional forces when one jumps or runs Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Femur Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.28b Femur The longest, largest, strongest bone of the body Articulates with the hip bone and knee Head: possesses the fovea capitis (central pit) Short ligament of the head of the femur runs from the fovea capitis to the acetabulum where it secures the femur The head is carried on a neck that angles laterally to join the body (the neck is the weakest part of the bone and is the location of a “broken hip”) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Femur Greater/lesser trochanters: Sites of attachment of the thigh and gluteal muscles Other sites of muscle attachment are: The two trochanters are connected by the intertrochanteric line anteriorly and the intertrochanteric crest posteriorly The gluteal tuberosity blends into the linea aspera which diverges into the medial / lateral suprcondylar lines Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Femur The lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia of the leg The medial and lateral epicondyles are sites of muscle attachment Adductor tubercle: site of muscle attachment Patellar surface: articulates with the patella (kneecap) Intercondylar fossa: Present between the condyles at the distal end of the femur. Articulates with the intercondylar eminence of the tibia Anterior and posterior intercondylar fossa (area) are the sites of anterior cruciate and posterior cruciate ligament attachment, respectively. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Abduction - A motion that pulls a structure or part away from the midline of the body (or, in the case of fingers and toes, spreading the digits apart, away from the centerline of the hand or foot). Adduction - A motion that pulls a structure or part towards the midline of the body, or towards the midline of a limb. Dropping the arms to the sides, or bringing the knees together, are examples of adduction. In the case of the fingers or toes, adduction is closing the digits together. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Tibia and Fibula Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.29 Leg The tibia and fibula form the skeleton of the leg They are connected to each other by the interosseous membrane They articulate with each other proximally and distally via the immovable tibiofibular joints The tibiofibular joints allow essentially no movement. These joints are less flexible, but stronger than say the forearm Medial tibia articulates proximally with the femur to form the modified hinge joint of the knee and distally with the talus bone of the foot at the ankle Lateral portion of the fibula stabalizes the ankle joint Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Tibia (shin bone) Receives the weight of the body from the femur and transmits it to the foot 2nd largest, strongest bone in the body Medial and lateral condyles: articulate with the corresponding condyles of the femur and are separated by the intercondylar eminence Tibial tuberosity is the attachment site of the patellar ligament Tibial shaft is triangular in cross-section and the anterior and medial borders can be palpated The medial malleolus: a projection forming the medial “bulge” of the ankle Fibular notch: on the lateral surface. Participates in the distal tibiofibular joint Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibula Head is the proximal end Lateral malleolus is the distal end (and results in the lateral ankle bulge) Articulates with the talus Does not bear weight, but is a site for muscle attachment Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Foot The skeleton of the foot includes the tarsus, metatarsus, and the phalanges (toes) The foot supports body weight and acts as a lever to propel the body forward in walking and running Segmentation make the foot pliable for locomotion on uneven ground Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.31a Tarsus Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.31b, c Tarsus Composed of seven bones that form the posterior half of the foot Body weight is carried primarily on: the talus: articulates with the tibia and fibula superiorly The calcaneus: forms the heel and carries the talus on its superior surface. The calcaneal (Achilles) tendon attaches to the posterior surface of the calcaneus The calcaneus tuberosity is the part that touches the ground The sustentacalum tali (the talar shelf) is the part that supports the talus Tibia articulates with the talus at the trochlea of the talus The remaining tarsals are: Cubiod Navicular medial, intermediate, lateral cuneiform bones Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Arches of the Foot Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 7.32 Arches of the Foot The arches are: Lateral longitudinal – cuboid is keystone of this arch Medial longitudinal – talus is keystone of this arch Transverse – runs obliquely from one side of the foot to the other Maintained by strong ligaments and the pull of tendons Have a “spring” effect Medial longitudinal arch is very high compare (7.32 b to c) The talus and calcaneus bones form the high arch medially Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chapter 8: Joints (Articulations) Weakest parts of the skeleton Articulation – site where two or more bones meet Functions of joints Give the skeleton mobility Hold the skeleton together Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Joints: Structural Structural classification focuses on the material binding bones together and whether or not a joint cavity is present The three structural classifications are: Fibrous: immobile Cartilaginous: rigid and moveable examples Synovial: freely moveable Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Joints: Functional Functional classification is based on the amount of movement allowed by the joint The three functional classes of joints are: Synarthroses – immovable joint (axial skeleton) Amphiarthroses – slightly movable joint (axial skeleton) Diarthroses – freely movable joint (limbs) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Summary of Joint Classes Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibrous Structural Joints The bones are joined by fibrous tissues There is no joint cavity Most are immovable There are three types: Sutures Syndesmoses Gomphoses Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibrous Structural Joints: Sutures Occur between the bones of the skull Comprised of interlocking junctions completely filled with connective tissue fibers Bind bones tightly together, but allow for growth during youth In middle age, skull bones fuse and are called synostoses Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibrous Structural Joints: Syndesmoses Bones are connected by a fibrous tissue ligament Movement varies from immovable to slightly variable Examples include the connection between the tibia and fibula, and the radius and ulna Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibrous Structural Joints: Gomphoses The peg-in-socket fibrous joint between a tooth and its alveolar socket The fibrous connection is the periodontal ligaments (J & K below) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cartilaginous Joints Articulating bones are united by cartilage Lack a joint cavity Two types – synchondroses and symphyses Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondroses Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 8.2a, b Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondroses A bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites the bones All synchondroses are synarthrotic Examples include: Epiphyseal plates of children (eventually become synostoes) Joint between the costal cartilage of the first rib and the menubrium of the sternum Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cartilaginous Joints: Symphyses Hyaline cartilage covers the articulating surface of the bone and is fused to an intervening pad of fibrocartilage Amphiarthrotic joints designed for strength and flexibility Examples include intervertebral joints and the pubic symphysis of the pelvis Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Synovial Joints Those joints in which the articulating bones are separated by a fluidcontaining joint cavity All are freely movable (diarthroses( Examples – all limb joints, and most joints of the body Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Synovial Joints: General Structure Synovial joints all have the following 5 features: Articular cartilage: Hyaline cartilage covers the opposing bone surfaces Absorbs compression Joint (synovial) cavity: Space that contains a small amount of synovial fluid Articular capsule: Encloses the joint cavity External layer (fibrous capsule) composed of dense irregular connective tissue that is continuous w/ periostea of the articulating bones Strengthens joint so bones are not pulled apart Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Synovial Joints: General Structure Synovial fluid Occupies all free spaces within the joint capsule Weight bearing film that reduces friction between cartilage surfaces Weeping lubrication: weeps out, seeps back in (when under compression) Contains phagocytes: remove cellular debris Reinforcing ligaments Capsular or intrinsic ligaments that are thickened parts of the fibrous capsule Extra-/intra-capsular ligaments Richly supplied with sensory nerve endings that monitor the joint’s position Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Synovial Joints: Friction-Reducing Structures “Bags of Lubricant” that reduce friction & found between adjacent structures Bursae – flattened, fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes and containing a film of synovial fluid Common where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together Tendon sheath – elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon subjected to friction Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Synovial Joints: Factors influencing the stability of synovial joints Stability is determined by: i) Shape of the articular surfaces ii) Number and positions of ligaments iii) Quality of muscle tone Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Synovial Joints: Factors influencing the stability of synovial joints i) Shape of the articular surfaces: Play minor role in joint stability Ball & socket very stable Shallow socket or no socket, unstable ii) Ligaments: The more, the stronger (stabler) Stretched ligaments stay stretched When the joint is braced only by ligaments, the joint is not stable ii) Muscle tone: Muscle tendons that cross the joint are the most important stabilizing factor Tendons are kept tight at all times by the tone of the muscle (tone = low level of contractile activity) E.g. most important for shoulder and knee joints, and the arch of the foot So what’s good and bad muscle tone…? Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Good Muscle Tone… Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings And Bad Muscle Tone Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Synovial Joints: Movement (see Table 8.2) Every skeletal muscle is attached to at least 2 points: Origin – attachment to the immovable (or less movable) bone Insertion – attachment to the movable (or more movable) bone Thus, body movement occurs during contraction of muscle across joints & their insertion moves toward their origin. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Synovial Joints: Range of Motion Nonaxial movement: no axis, slipping movements Uniaxial movement: movement in one plane Biaxial movement: movement in two planes Multiaxial movement: movement in or around all three planes Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Range of Motion There are 3 types of movements: Gliding Angular movements Rotation Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Gliding Movements Translation: One flat bone surface glides or slips over another similar surface without angulation or rotation Examples – intercarpal and intertarsal joints, and between the flat articular processes of the vertebrae Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Gliding Movement Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 8.5a Angular Movement Increase or decrease the angle between 2 bones. Include: Flexion — bending movement along the sagittal plane that decreases the angle of the joint and brings the articular bones closer together Extension — (reverse of flexion) bending movement along the sagittal plane that increases the angle of the joint and brings the articular bones further apart Hyperextension – bending beyond upright (or normal) extension Dorsiflexion (toes up) and plantar flexion (pointing toes) of foot Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Angular Movement Abduction — (moving away) movement of limb away from the midline / or median plane of body along the frontal plane Adduction — (moving toward) movement of a limb toward the body midline Circumduction — moving a limb so that it describes a cone in space Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Angular Movement Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 8.5b Angular Movement Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 8.5c, d Angular Movement Dorsi and Plantar Flexion Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 8.5e, f Rotation Turning a bone along its own long axis E.g. 1st two cervical vertebrae E.g. hip and shoulder joints Medial rotation: toward median plane Lateral rotation: away from median plane Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Rotation The turning of a bone around its own long axis Examples Between first two vertebrae Hip and shoulder joints Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 8.5g Special Movements Supination and pronation: Supination: (turning backwards) e.g. palm up or forward (or palm superiorly or anteriorly Pronation: (turning forwards) e.g. palm down or back (or palm inferior or posterior) Eg. For supination/pronation is the radius and ulna Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Special Movements Inversion and eversion: e.g. the foot Inversion: the sole of the foot moves medially Eversion: the sole of the foot moves laterally Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Special Movements Protraction and retraction: e.g. the jaw Nonangular anterior (protraction) and posterior (retraction) movements in a transverse plane Or… Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Special Movements Protraction Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Retraction Special Movements Elevation and depression: Elevation: lifting a body part superiorly E.g. scapulae are “elevated” when you shrug your shoulders Depression: lifting a body part inferiorly E.g. chewing: mandible alternates between elevation and depression Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Special Movements Opposition: e.g. oppostion of the thumb and fingers Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings KU Game Week!!!! Tues. 7 pm Tues. 7:30 pm Sat. 1 pm Sat. 5 pm Sun. 1 pm Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings