Download Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin

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Congrats to the Phillies and Rays!!
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All Time Worst Mascots!
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Dartmouth’s “Keggy the Keg”
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Xavier’s “Blue Blob”
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Alabama’s “Crimson Tide” (this is an adjective
and a verb folks)
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UC Santa Barbara’s “Slug”
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The Upper Limb
The upper limb consists of the arm (brachium),
forearm (antebrachium), and hand (manus)
Thirty-seven bones form the skeletal framework of
each upper limb
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Arm
The humerus is the sole bone of the arm
It articulates with the scapula at the shoulder, and
the radius and ulna at the elbow
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Arm
Tubercles: Greater & lesser separated by intertuberchlar sulcus (bicipital
groove)
Site of muscle attachment for the rotator cuff muscles
The intertubercular sulcus guides a tendon of the biceps to its
attachment point at the rim of the glenoid cavity
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Arm
Surgical neck: common site of fractures
Deltoid tuberosity: attachment site of the deltoid muscle of the
shoulder
Radial groove: marks the course of the radial nerve
Medial and lateral epicondyles which are points of muscle
attachment
Coronoid fossa (anterior) and olecranon fossa (posterior):
depressions that allow the corresponding processes of the ulna
to move freely
Radial fossa: receives the head of the radius when the elbow is
flexed
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Bones of the Forearm (antebrachium):
Radius and Ulna
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Figure 7.24
Forearm
Can palpate the radius and ulna along their entire length…unless you are
very muscle bound
radioulnar joints: joints where the radius & ulna articulate both proximally
and distally
Interosseous membrane: connects the radius & ulna along their entire length
The radius and ulna form an “X” when pronated.
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Ulna
Slightly longer than the radius
Forms the elbow joint w/ the humerus
Proximal end bears:
Olecranon process
Coronoid process
These processes are separated by the trochlear notch
These processes “grip” the trochlea of the humerus
(hinge joint)
Thus, when fully extended, the olecranon process of the
ulna locks into the olecranon fossa of the humerus and
prevents hyperextension
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Radius
The major forearm bone contributing to the wrist
The superior surface of the head is concave and articulates w/ the capitulum
of the humerus
Medially, the head articulates with the radial notch of the ulna
Major markings include:
the radial tuberosity: anchor site for the biceps
ulnar notch: located distally and articulates w/ the ulna
styloid process: anchoring site for ligaments
running to the wrist
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Radius and Ulna
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Figure 7.24
Pelvis (Hip)
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Figure 7.27a
Comparison of Male and Female Pelves
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Table 7.4.1
Comparison of Male and Female Pelves
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Table 7.4.2
Pelvic Girdle (Hip)
Attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton
Transmits the weight from the upper body to the lower
body
Supports the visceral organs of the pelvis
Lacks mobility, but has greater stability
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Ilium
The ilium is a large flaring bone that forms the superior region of the
coxal bone
It consists of a body and a superior winglike portion called the ala
(where the iliac crests are found)
Sites of muscle attachment are:
Anterior superior iliac spine
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Posterior superior iliac spine
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Greater Sciatic notch: passage for the sciatic nerve to the thigh
Gluteal surface: consists of the posterior, anterior, and inferior gluteal
lines. Serves as the attachment of the gluteal muscles
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Ilium
The auricular surface articulates with the sacrum forming the
sacroiliac joint
The weight of the body is transferred through the spine to the
pelvis through this joint
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Ischium
The ischium forms the posteroinferior part of the hip bone
The thick body articulates with the ilium, and the thinner ramus articulates with the
pubis anteriorly
Ischial spine: projects medially into the pelvic cavity
Is the point of attachment for the sacrospinous ligament running from the
saccrum
Lesser sciatic notch: passage for nerves and blood vessels to serve the
anogenital area
Ischial tuberosity: a thickened area that is the strongest part of the hip
bones (You are sitting on it right now!!!) Also functions as the
attachment site for the muscels of the hamstring
Sacrotuberous ligament: a massive ligament running from the sacrum to
each ischial tuberosity. Functions to hold the pelvis together
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Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Pubis: Medial and Lateral Views
Medial
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Lateral
Figure 7.27c
Pubis
The pubic bone forms the anterior portion of the hip bone
It articulates with the ischium and the ilium
The urinary bladder rests upon it
Pubic crest: lateral end is the pubic tubercle and the
attachment point for the inguinal ligament
Obturator foramen: passage way for blood vessels and
nerves, but is mostly filled with fibrous membranes
Pubic symphisis joint: where the bodies of the 2 pubic bones
are joined by a fibrocartilage disc
Pubic arch: the acuteness of the angle of this structure
defines a male vs. female hip
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Comparison of Male and Female Pelvic
Structure
Male pelvis
Tilted less forward
Adapted for support of heavier male build and stronger muscles
Cavity of true pelvis is narrow and deep
Female pelvis
Tilted forward, adapted for childbearing
True pelvis defines birth canal
Cavity of the true pelvis is broad, shallow, and has greater capacity
Female
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Male
Pelvic Structure and Child Bearing
The pelvic brim separates the false (greater) and true (lesser)
pelvis
False pelvis:
Supports abdominal viscera
Does not restrict childbirth
True pelvis:
Surrounded by bone
Contains the pelvic organs
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Pelvic Structure
Pelvic inlet IS the pelvic brim
During child birth, the soon-to-be-newborn’s forehead faces one
ilium and it’s occiput faces the other ilium.
Pelvic outlet IS the inferior margin of the true pelvis
After the baby’s head passes the inlet, the baby rotates to an
anterio-posterior orientation with the forehead facing
posteriorly
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The Lower Limb
The three segments of the lower limb are the thigh,
leg, and foot
They carry the weight of the erect body, and are
subjected to exceptional forces when one jumps or
runs
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Femur
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Figure 7.28b
Femur
The longest, largest, strongest bone of the body
Articulates with the hip bone and knee
Head: possesses the fovea capitis (central pit)
Short ligament of the head of the femur runs from the fovea capitis to
the acetabulum where it secures the femur
The head is carried on a neck that angles laterally to join the body (the
neck is the weakest part of the bone and is the location of a “broken
hip”)
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Femur
Greater/lesser trochanters:
Sites of attachment of the thigh and gluteal muscles
Other sites of muscle attachment are:
The two trochanters are connected by the
intertrochanteric line anteriorly and the intertrochanteric
crest posteriorly
The gluteal tuberosity blends into the linea aspera which
diverges into the medial / lateral suprcondylar lines
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Femur
The lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia of the leg
The medial and lateral epicondyles are sites of muscle attachment
Adductor tubercle: site of muscle attachment
Patellar surface: articulates with the patella (kneecap)
Intercondylar fossa:
Present between the condyles at the distal end of the femur.
Articulates with the intercondylar eminence of the tibia
Anterior and posterior intercondylar fossa (area) are the sites of
anterior cruciate and posterior cruciate ligament attachment,
respectively.
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Abduction - A motion that pulls a structure or part away
from the midline of the body (or, in the case of fingers and
toes, spreading the digits apart, away from the centerline of
the hand or foot).
Adduction - A motion that pulls a structure or part
towards the midline of the body, or towards the midline of
a limb. Dropping the arms to the sides, or bringing the
knees together, are examples of adduction. In the case of
the fingers or toes, adduction is closing the digits together.
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Tibia and Fibula
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Figure 7.29
Leg
The tibia and fibula form the skeleton of the leg
They are connected to each other by the interosseous
membrane
They articulate with each other proximally and distally via
the immovable tibiofibular joints
The tibiofibular joints allow essentially no movement.
These joints are less flexible, but stronger than say
the forearm
Medial tibia articulates proximally with the femur to form
the modified hinge joint of the knee and distally with the
talus bone of the foot at the ankle
Lateral portion of the fibula stabalizes the ankle joint
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Tibia (shin bone)
Receives the weight of the body from the femur and transmits it to the
foot
2nd largest, strongest bone in the body
Medial and lateral condyles: articulate with the corresponding condyles
of the femur and are separated by the intercondylar eminence
Tibial tuberosity is the attachment site of the patellar ligament
Tibial shaft is triangular in cross-section and the anterior and medial
borders can be palpated
The medial malleolus: a projection forming the medial “bulge” of the
ankle
Fibular notch: on the lateral surface. Participates in the distal tibiofibular
joint
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Fibula
Head is the proximal end
Lateral malleolus is the distal end (and results in
the lateral ankle bulge)
Articulates with the talus
Does not bear weight, but is a site for muscle
attachment
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Foot
The skeleton of the foot
includes the tarsus,
metatarsus, and the
phalanges (toes)
The foot supports body
weight and acts as a lever to
propel the body forward in
walking and running
Segmentation make the foot
pliable for locomotion on
uneven ground
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Figure 7.31a
Tarsus
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Figure 7.31b, c
Tarsus
Composed of seven bones that form the posterior half of the foot
Body weight is carried primarily on:
the talus: articulates with the tibia and fibula superiorly
The calcaneus: forms the heel and carries the talus on its superior surface.
The calcaneal (Achilles) tendon attaches to the posterior surface of the
calcaneus
The calcaneus tuberosity is the part that touches the ground
The sustentacalum tali (the talar shelf) is the part that supports the talus
Tibia articulates with the talus at the trochlea of the talus
The remaining tarsals are:
Cubiod
Navicular
medial, intermediate, lateral cuneiform bones
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Arches of the Foot
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Figure 7.32
Arches of the Foot
The arches are:
Lateral longitudinal – cuboid is keystone of this arch
Medial longitudinal – talus is keystone of this arch
Transverse – runs obliquely from one side of the foot to the other
Maintained by strong ligaments and the pull of tendons
Have a “spring” effect
Medial longitudinal arch is very high compare (7.32 b to c)
The talus and calcaneus bones form the high arch medially
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Chapter 8: Joints (Articulations)
Weakest parts of the skeleton
Articulation – site where two or more bones meet
Functions of joints
Give the skeleton mobility
Hold the skeleton together
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Classification of Joints: Structural
Structural classification focuses on the material
binding bones together and whether or not a joint
cavity is present
The three structural classifications are:
Fibrous: immobile
Cartilaginous: rigid and moveable examples
Synovial: freely moveable
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Classification of Joints: Functional
Functional classification is based on the amount of
movement allowed by the joint
The three functional classes of joints are:
Synarthroses – immovable joint (axial skeleton)
Amphiarthroses – slightly movable joint (axial
skeleton)
Diarthroses – freely movable joint (limbs)
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Summary of Joint Classes
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Fibrous Structural Joints
The bones are joined by fibrous tissues
There is no joint cavity
Most are immovable
There are three types:
Sutures
Syndesmoses
Gomphoses
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Fibrous Structural Joints: Sutures
Occur between the bones of the skull
Comprised of interlocking junctions completely filled with
connective tissue fibers
Bind bones tightly together, but allow for growth during youth
In middle age, skull bones fuse and are called synostoses
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Fibrous Structural Joints: Syndesmoses
Bones are connected by a fibrous tissue ligament
Movement varies from immovable to slightly variable
Examples include the connection between the tibia and fibula,
and the radius and ulna
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Fibrous Structural Joints: Gomphoses
The peg-in-socket fibrous joint between a tooth and its alveolar
socket
The fibrous connection is the periodontal ligaments (J & K
below)
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Cartilaginous Joints
Articulating bones are united by cartilage
Lack a joint cavity
Two types – synchondroses and symphyses
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Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondroses
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Figure 8.2a, b
Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondroses
A bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites the bones
All synchondroses are synarthrotic
Examples include:
Epiphyseal plates of children (eventually become synostoes)
Joint between the costal cartilage of the first rib and the menubrium of
the sternum
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Cartilaginous Joints: Symphyses
Hyaline cartilage covers the articulating surface of the bone and is fused to
an intervening pad of fibrocartilage
Amphiarthrotic joints designed for strength and flexibility
Examples include intervertebral joints and the pubic symphysis of the pelvis
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Synovial Joints
Those joints in which the articulating bones are separated by a fluidcontaining joint cavity
All are freely movable (diarthroses(
Examples – all limb joints, and most joints of the body
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Synovial Joints: General Structure
Synovial joints all have the following 5 features:
Articular cartilage:
Hyaline cartilage covers the opposing bone surfaces
Absorbs compression
Joint (synovial) cavity:
Space that contains a small amount of synovial fluid
Articular capsule:
Encloses the joint cavity
External layer (fibrous capsule) composed of dense irregular
connective tissue that is continuous w/ periostea of the
articulating bones
Strengthens joint so bones are not pulled apart
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Synovial Joints: General Structure
Synovial fluid
Occupies all free spaces within the joint capsule
Weight bearing film that reduces friction between cartilage
surfaces
Weeping lubrication: weeps out, seeps back in (when under
compression)
Contains phagocytes: remove cellular debris
Reinforcing ligaments
Capsular or intrinsic ligaments that are thickened parts of the
fibrous capsule
Extra-/intra-capsular ligaments
Richly supplied with sensory nerve endings that monitor the
joint’s position
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Synovial Joints: Friction-Reducing Structures
“Bags of Lubricant” that reduce friction & found between adjacent structures
Bursae – flattened, fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes and
containing a film of synovial fluid
Common where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together
Tendon sheath – elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon
subjected to friction
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Synovial Joints: Factors influencing the stability of
synovial joints
Stability is determined by:
i) Shape of the articular surfaces
ii) Number and positions of ligaments
iii) Quality of muscle tone
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Synovial Joints: Factors influencing the stability of
synovial joints
i) Shape of the articular surfaces:
Play minor role in joint stability
Ball & socket very stable
Shallow socket or no socket, unstable
ii) Ligaments:
The more, the stronger (stabler)
Stretched ligaments stay stretched
When the joint is braced only by ligaments, the joint is not stable
ii) Muscle tone:
Muscle tendons that cross the joint are the most important stabilizing factor
Tendons are kept tight at all times by the tone of the muscle
(tone = low level of contractile activity)
E.g. most important for shoulder and knee joints, and the arch of the foot
So what’s good and bad muscle tone…?
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Good Muscle Tone…
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And Bad Muscle Tone
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Synovial Joints: Movement (see Table 8.2)
Every skeletal muscle is attached to at least 2
points:
Origin – attachment to the immovable (or less
movable) bone
Insertion – attachment to the movable (or more
movable) bone
Thus, body movement occurs during contraction of
muscle across joints & their insertion moves
toward their origin.
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Synovial Joints: Range of Motion
Nonaxial movement: no axis, slipping movements
Uniaxial movement: movement in one plane
Biaxial movement: movement in two planes
Multiaxial movement: movement in or around all
three planes
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Range of Motion
There are 3 types of movements:
Gliding
Angular movements
Rotation
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Gliding Movements
Translation: One flat bone surface glides or slips
over another similar surface without angulation or
rotation
Examples – intercarpal and intertarsal joints, and
between the flat articular processes of the vertebrae
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Gliding Movement
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Figure 8.5a
Angular Movement
Increase or decrease the angle between 2 bones. Include:
Flexion — bending movement along the sagittal plane that
decreases the angle of the joint and brings the articular
bones closer together
Extension — (reverse of flexion) bending movement along
the sagittal plane that increases the angle of the joint and
brings the articular bones further apart
Hyperextension – bending beyond upright (or normal)
extension
Dorsiflexion (toes up) and plantar flexion (pointing toes)
of foot
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Angular Movement
Abduction — (moving away) movement of limb
away from the midline / or median plane of body
along the frontal plane
Adduction — (moving toward) movement of a
limb toward the body midline
Circumduction — moving a limb so that it
describes a cone in space
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Angular Movement
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Figure 8.5b
Angular Movement
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Figure 8.5c, d
Angular Movement
Dorsi and Plantar Flexion
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Figure 8.5e, f
Rotation
Turning a bone along its own long axis
E.g. 1st two cervical vertebrae
E.g. hip and shoulder joints
Medial rotation: toward median plane
Lateral rotation: away from median plane
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Rotation
The turning of a bone
around its own long axis
Examples
Between first two
vertebrae
Hip and shoulder joints
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Figure 8.5g
Special Movements
Supination and pronation:
Supination: (turning backwards) e.g. palm up or forward (or palm
superiorly or anteriorly
Pronation: (turning forwards) e.g. palm down or back (or palm
inferior or posterior)
Eg. For supination/pronation is the radius and ulna
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Special Movements
Inversion and eversion: e.g. the foot
Inversion: the sole of the foot moves medially
Eversion: the sole of the foot moves laterally
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Special Movements
Protraction and retraction: e.g. the jaw
Nonangular anterior (protraction) and posterior
(retraction) movements in a transverse plane
Or…
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Special Movements
Protraction
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Retraction
Special Movements
Elevation and depression:
Elevation: lifting a body part superiorly
E.g. scapulae are “elevated” when you shrug your shoulders
Depression: lifting a body part inferiorly
E.g. chewing: mandible alternates between elevation and
depression
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Special Movements
Opposition: e.g. oppostion of the thumb and
fingers
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KU Game Week!!!!
Tues. 7 pm
Tues. 7:30 pm
Sat. 1 pm
Sat. 5 pm
Sun. 1 pm
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