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“Is McCarthyism Dead? A Recurring and Revived Topic of American Politics”
By: Becky Adamski, Advisor-Dr. David Krugler
McCarthyism was an aggressive socio-political attitude in the 1950’s, which stressed
upholding American values to protect the country’s dislike of communism. American
society in the 1950’s reaped the benefits of post war recovery in social and economic
growth. Communism, according to Senator McCarthy, was rampant among numerous
governmental officials and threatened our American way of life. McCarthy promised to
protect America, while he accused members of the government of being connected to
communism and betraying our country. However, historical research affirms that
McCarthy lacked evidence and therefore wrongly scared society against the threat of
communism. An examination of the connection between past and revived attitudes of
McCarthyism is significant to understand how our past socio-political attitudes can effect
current events.
In Wheeling, West Virginia, on February 9, 1950, Wisconsin Senator Joseph
McCarthy gave a speech declaring 205 Americans as Communist spies for the Soviet
Union 1 . McCarthy announced, “Today we are engaged in a final, all out battle between
communistic atheism and Christianity.” 2 His remarks gained national attention as he
called for citizens to be suspicious of federal workers as possible spies and emphasized
the need for America to protect its way of life against the woes of Soviet Communism.
This callous speech became known as McCarthy’s Wheeling Speech, and served as the
basis of his rise campaign to target communists.
Senator Joseph McCarthy was a fiery and commanding man who gained public
attention for his attacks on US citizens for their connection or cooperation with the
Communist Party in the early 1950’s. McCarthy’s allegations intensified the aggressive
societal suspicions against the influences of communism. McCarthy’s campaign
portrayed citizens as unpatriotic traitors and consequently intensified existing public fears
1
Joseph McCarthy. “Communists in Government Service” United States Senate Historical Minute Essays,
1950.
2
“Communists in Government Service” United States Senate Historical Minute Essays, 1950.
1
about communism. The Wheeling Speech exposed 205 supposed American traitors and
outlined McCarthy’s aggressive tactics and his promise to protect America against. For
the context of this essay McCarthyism will be defined as an aggressive social-political
attitude in politics and society that was concerned with protecting traditional American
values and to protect the country against the forces of communism.
THESIS
Because Neo-McCarthyism is an issue of contention today, more academic
research is needed to explore the existence of McCarthyism in modern society. This essay
will examine McCarthyism in the 1950’s as a socio-political strategy to subdue Cold War
insecurities. It will also highlight that since 9/11 American perceptions are similar to
McCarthyism, resulting in Neo-McCarthyism as an approach to combat terrorism.
Through studying of original documents, secondary resources, and current events
we can analyze McCarthyism and the surge of Neo-McCarthyism. Specifically, I will
examine the early influences of Cold War; will evaluate who McCarthy attacked and
why; demonstrate McCarthy lacked sufficient evidence to justify his allegations and
unnecessary investigations; and explain how after 9/11 a McCarthy style pursuit of
terrorist resurged. Thus, McCarthyism has revived in the US since 9/11, as a strong
parallel can be drawn between past attitudes of McCarthyism and today’s fears and
support for policies against terrorist activity.
I Domestic and Global Attitudes Post WWII
After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union dominated global
politics and consequently established a rivalry in international relations. The US and
USSR had the greatest influence and resources to restabilize Europe. The United States
2
stressed democracy, capitalism, and republicanism, whereas the USSR emphasized
communism, state-controlled economy and a single political party dominating politics.
By 1950, it was clear that the world was divided geographically, ideologically, and
culturally and existed for forty more years.
Postwar America domestically prospered with a boom in population, sub
urbanization and industrialization. America’s population began to swell from the Baby
Boom; by 1947 the population added 2,800,000 new births to raise the national
population to total 144 million.” 3 The post war economy thrived with the production and
sale of the construction materials, automobile, aviation, and industrial sectors. America’s
GDP in 1950 was holding strong at $300,000 million from a $100,000 million increase
from a decade earlier. 4 More or less in domestic matters, Americans were relieved from
the worry of war and concentrated on living the American dream and settled into having
children, owning a home, and striving as a productive unit in society.
In international affairs, life was not as peaceful. A Gallop Poll in 1945 confirmed that
US citizens agreed, “Russia was aggressive, imperialistic, and determined to rule the
world.” 5 The USSR was a threat to the US and suspicion grew against communism.
Following the war, President Truman allocated $400 millions of dollar in funds to rebuild
Europe 6 . In the spring of 1947, President Truman outlined in a speech to Congress his
plan to provide economic aid to Greece and Turkey as a preventative measure to resorting
to stabilize and rebuild their economies. The Truman Doctrine, as President Truman
3
“Baby Boom.” Time, February 9, 1948,
"http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856041,00.html"
4
Ambrose, Stephen E, and Douglass G. Brinkley. Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy Since 1938.
8th ed. New York: Penguin Books, 1997, p. 80.
5
Oshinsky, David M. A Conspiracy So Immense: The World of Joe McCarthy. New York: Free
Press,1983, p.95.
6
“Truman’s Speech to Congress March 12, 1947.” Quoted in Graebner, Norman A. Cold War Diplomacy
1945-1960. Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1963, pp.149-155.
3
stated, would “support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by…outside
pressures.” 7 Then in the summer of 1947, the Marshall Plan was an initiative designed to
supply European countries with assistance so that “a solid economic foundation of mutual
collaboration and interdependence” would prevent future violence 8 . In the end, the US
would send $13 billion dollars in relief to Western Europe. 9
Thus, America’s primary prerogatives in the 1950’s was to maintain first its national
prosperity and second to prevent the spread of communism. America was booming in
1950, but also afraid of Russian threats to US national success. So when McCarthy noted
federal employees as communist, Americans heeded the news and began to support a
forceful attitude against communism as a method to protect America. Thus, the Wheeling
Speech shook Americans lives and set off a domestic paranoia of McCarthyism thereby
consenting to the Senators campaign versus threats to American security.
II McCarthy: His Attacks and Logic
In 1950- 1954, Senator Joseph McCarthy gained influence from his efforts to
combat the threat of communism. A Wisconsinite, McCarthy had previous experiences as
a lawyer, circuit judge, and marine in WWII. 10 Elected to the Senate in 1946, McCarthy
was known as a “young bright, hardworking, and frighteningly ambitious” person. Early
in his Senate career, McCarthy stressed tightening the federal budget to consistently
voted conservative. 11 Later McCarthy would get assigned to the Committee on
7
Ibid.
May, Stacey. “Measuring the Marshall Plan.” Foreign Affairs Magazine . April, 1948.
9
US Department of State. Bureau of International Information Programs. “The Marshall Plan (1947)”. 29
April 2005. http://usinfo.state.gov/special/Archive/2005/Apr/29-923823.html.
10
“McCarthy, Joseph Raymond (1908-1957)” Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
11
Oshinsky, p. 72.
8
4
Government Operations and became active in the subcommittee on permanent
investigations. This was where McCarthy initated his anti-communist campaign.
According to McCarthy’s Wheeling speech, the State Department spies were
organized and hazardous to the government. He stated he had “indisputable evidence
establishing the National Labor Relations Board is honeycombed with members of the
Communist party” and that their “sinister type of activity” would “permit the energy to
guide and shape our policy.” 12 McCarthy would use his authority as Chairman of the
Committee on Government Operations to purge the country of Communist forces seeping
into the American system.
MCCARTHY’S TARGETS
As Chairman of the Committee on Government Operations, McCarthy possessed
a great deal of authority concerning investigations into government officials and searched
for “allegations of corruption and malfeasance.” 13 He launched investigations on
officials, agencies, and liberals. The Senator suspected negligence, excess spending, or
treason due to a person’s loyalty to the Soviet Union or communist ideology. McCarthy’s
anti-communist campaign was so forceful and foreboding that the public supported the
Senators actions to protect America.
First, McCarthy and other republicans disliked excess government spending and
assistance overseas as unnecessary and a weak strategy to control the spread of
communism.. McCarthy targeted agencies like the Department of State. Also, he accused
12
Congressional Records, 81 Congress 2nd Session, January 26,1950, pp. 1002-1008.
13
US Congress. Senate. Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government
Operations (McCarthy Hearings 1953-1954). Executive Sessions, 83rd Congress, 1st session.
5
elite leaders such as; Presidents Truman and Eisenhower, 14 George Marshall, Dean
Acheson, and Diplomat Phillip C. Jessup, 15 of being wasteful, sympathetic to
communism, and deteriorating American supremacy. McCarthy asserted these officials
were dangerous and pledged to cleanse the government of waste any enemy infiltration. 16
Second, public information systems and the media heeded McCarthy’s claims of
being supportive of communism. For instance, the State Department was accused of
producing pro-communist sensitive materials geared towards overseas travelers;
therefore, McCarthy sought extra oversight concerning the Informational Media
Guarantee Privilege. 17 Also, the State Department’s sponsored libraries abroad and
McCarthy wanted the libraries materials to be reviewed for documents supporting the
Soviet Union and communism. Finally, radio was also attacked by McCarthy. Voice of
America (VOA) or US international radio broadcasting service established during WWII,
was suspected of transmitting pro communist messages. Plus the VOA according to
McCarthy, was packed with “the old team” Truman appointees and Democrats. 18
Third, Liberal attitudes were met with McCarthy’s antagonism. LIFE and TIME
magazines took the brunt of the allegations due to their liberal editorials and article
selections. McCarthy wrote the New York Times, slamming TIME magazine for
deliberately manipulating his campaign, suggesting the magazine was guilty of
“viciousness of the lying smear attack which TIME magazine made in its attempt to
14
McCarthy identified Roosevelt and Truman for allowing mediums for Communist influence to “subvert
the government.” Krugler, David F. The Voice of America and the Domestic Propaganda Battles,
1945-1953. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2000. p.115.
15
Jessup was blamed for the rise of Communism in Asia and according to McCarthy guilty of
“irreplaceable harm to the prestige of the United States.”
“McCarthy Charges August 22, 1951.” Papers of Philip C. Jessup-Ambassador, Box A 137.
Library of Congress, Manuscripts Division. May 22, 2006.
16
Brown, p233-254.
17
“Off Again, On Again.” Time Magazine. P. 50 May 4, 1953.
18
Krugler, 167.
6
hamper my efforts to get rid of the Communists in high positions in our government.” 19
McCarthy also threatened the financial demise of LIFE. He then, threatened to discourage
LIFE to discontinue their business with the magazine. Intellectuals such as; Hollywood
figures, labor unions members, academics, and civil rights workers were chastised for
their freethinking convictions. For example, Joseph Rauh, and his work for Americans
for Democratic Action, was investigated for fighting to preserve the civil liberties of
Americans who belonged to the Communist Party. 20
McCarthy wanted to cleanse the country of communism. He therefore made
public accusations against government leaders, agencies, and liberals for betraying
America. McCarthyism, was an American “struggle to rid the government of spies and
traitors” and was at the forefront of broadcasting the anti-communist message. 21
McCARTHY’S METHODS
McCarthy made these accusations because of his stature in Congress and his
political media acquaintances. McCarthy’s influence as the chairman of the Permanent
Subcommittee on Investigation enabled his zealous pursuit to “uncover subversive
[actions] and espionage.” 22 The majority of Republicans followed McCarthy’s lead,
specifically Senators Robert Taft (R-Ohio) and Kenneth Wherry (R-Nebraska), who were
McCarthy’s greatest supporters. 23 McCarthy’s staff was essential to these investigations.
McCarthy appointed Roy Cohn and Francis Carr as lead investigators. They had full
19
“McCarthy Assails Time Magazine.” New York Times, p. 9. January 29, 1952.
Civil Right and Civil Liberties 1952-1957, Box 26 Folder no. 3, Joseph Rauh Papers,
Manuscripts Division. Library of Congress, Washington DC.
21
Brown., p233-254.
22
US Congress. Senate. Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government
Operations, p.xi.
23
Oshinsky, 132
20
7
access to federal documents and unfairly prepared cases against the accused. 24 Finally,
McCarthy had friendly ties with the media. Conservative members of the press were used
to broadcast his accusations and anti-communist concerns. McCarthy made frequent
addresses on television to perpetuate his support against Communists. The republican
geared press enabled McCarthy to dominate the airwaves with “charges of subversion
and espionage at highest levels of the federal government.” 25 Most members of the press
would uncritically report upon McCarthy’s proceedings. 26 In all, McCarthy relied on his
peers, staff, and friends in the press to promote his campaign versus communism.
WHO ACCEPTED HIS ALLEGATIONS
Polling statistics report the public trusted McCarthy and believed he was
protecting the country. According to a 1950 Gallop Poll, 40% of the country agreed that
McCarthy was “a good thing for the country.” 27 Historian Robert Sokol theorizes that
McCarthyism is connected to an individual’s socioeconomic status, religion, and political
persuasion. 28 Furthermore Sokol’s explain how members of the public; specifically labor
workers, uneducated, Catholics, and societies most elite, supported McCarthy and
demonstrates his success at reaching a variety of Americans. From the examination above
it is clear that McCarthy impacted all spectrums of American society. Hence, McCarthy
manipulated the truth, targeted government officials and agencies to promote a culture of
insecurity against communism and did not follow his similar logic.
III WHAT WE KNOW NOW
24
US Congress. Senate. Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government
Operations, p.xvi-xviii.
25
Ibid, p.xiii.
26
Oshinsky, p. 185
27
Ibid, 158.
28
“Power Orientation and McCarthyism.” American, p. 444.
8
Since the height of McCarthyism in 1954, academics can evaluate how McCarthy
helped reinforced societal attitudes to maintain American values and combat
communism. Through examining government publications, personal manuscripts, and
declassified information, one can gather evidence to establish how McCarthy’s claims
were strategic and false.
McCarthy made numerous accusation, but they lacked validity and were often
exaggerated. For example, McCarthy’s list of 205 spies was based off of an earlier House
Approvals investigation which cited federal employees as possible threats to national
security. One investigation, concluded that out of 205 people 108 “past and present”
federal employees were possible threats and 57 were marked as suspicious. Numerous
other examples can be cited of how McCarthy was aggressive and untruthful in his
campaign against suspects of communist infiltration. Such as accusations the VOA’s staff
had questionable sexual behaviors, 29 or how Diplomat Jessup betrayed the country when
he wrote letters stressing the need for US nuclear arms control and the need for economic
aid to China. 30
DISPROVING HIS ATTACKS
Taking into consideration how freely McCarthy made erroneous and exaggerated
claims, it is likely other accusations were also invalid. Historical research provides
evidence that McCarthy’s suspects were not connected to communism. In fact, the US
government had measures in place to dispel communist activity. As a result, McCarthy’s
accusations were unfounded, unnecessary, and wrongly spread the fear of communist
infiltration.
29
30
Krugler, p. 160.
McCarthy Charges, 22 August 1951, Box A, file 137.
9
The strongest argument against is the Venona Project. The Venona project
established evidence that McCarthy’s suspects were not connected to covert communist
operations. The Venona project was an internal decoding program of the US government
from 1943, which operated through the Cold War to decode Soviet messages into
America. 31
The Venona Project was a reliable source during the Cold War to validate
secondary reports and indictments. The material content retrieved by the Venona Project
was derived directly from the primary sources with Soviet headquarters in Moscow. The
Soviets were sending messages to acquire intelligence, communicate, or convert with
their contacts. Although Venona was able to decode a fraction of the intercepted
messages, it was on the other hand accurate because the information was directly from
the Soviet Union messages.
Historian John Earl Haynes undertook an investigatory approach of comparing the
Venona spies with McCarthy’s suspected spies. Haynes began to examine the names
identified from the Venona project and then compared them with the names of
McCarthy’s suspects. From McCarthy’s 159 suspected spies mentioned in the Wheeling
Speech, only nine had “substantial evidence” of being connected with “Soviet espionage
against the United States.” 32 Furthermore, Haynes comments that the majority of the
names were, at most tame “security risks” because of their past connections to pro-Soviet
labor unions or association with the Communist Party USA. 33 . Hayes concludes that a
minority of the names were not risks at all; such as leading government like Drew
31
“Venona.” National Security Agency. http://www.nsa.gov/venona/index.cfm.
Haynes, John Earl. “Senator Joseph McCarthy’s Lists and Venona.” John Earl Haynes.org. January 2006.
.http://www.johnearlhaynes.org./page62.html, p.18.
33
Ibid, p. 18.
32
10
Pearson, Dean Acheson, and George Marshall. 34 The knowledge gained from Haynes
research supports the theory that McCarthy used unreliable facts and his accusations were
strategic and lacked evidence.
Also, the Venona Project served as a preventive program to assess the level of
espionage in the country. The Venona project was responsible for translating 2,200
messages and was successful for identifying three American spies.35 Together, the facts
validate the Intel recovered by the Venona Project. The intelligence is credible since it
was recovered directly from the USSR. Hence, Hayes’s argues McCarthy’s suspects were
not connected to know Soviet spies inside the country. Additionally, Venona is another
example of how America was prepared to protect the country against communist’s forces.
During WWII and into the 1950’s the American government was active in foreign
policy measures to rebuild Europe. Presidents Roosevelt and Truman methodically
supplied Western Europe and the Balkans with $6.8 billion in financial aid as a measure
of economic assistance and the insurance of peace. 36 The National Security Agency’s
plan, NSA 68 asserted militarism to prevent future conflict between the USSR with “an
immediate and large scale build up our military,” was a “practical extension of the
Truman Doctrine.” 37 Thus, the Venona Project, containment, and economic recovery
plans were all national strategies for American security. It is also evidence that President
Truman (and later Eisenhower) were loyal to America and acted to monitor national
security and communism.
34
Ibid, p. 18.
Loyal to the Communist Party spies such as Whitaker Chambers a news editor, and Elizabeth Bently.
Bentley was identified though the decoded translations and confessed to running “ a network of spies and
served as a courier.” Venona also intercepted messages with atomic calculations and messages of and
found Klaus Fuchs responsible for sharing scientific research.
36
May, p 2.
37
Ambrose, p. 111.
35
11
Thus, historical scholarship strongly suggests McCarthy used false and
exaggerated facts. Also, it is now known America was acting against the threat of
communism in foreign policy, economic aid, and policy planning. Therefore, McCarthy’s
campaign was unfounded and unnecessary.
IV Post 9/11 Political Attitudes
Following the terrorist attacks on 9/11, President George W. Bush’s approval
ratings soared to over ninety percent.38 Sensing the public’s vulnerability, President Bush
incorporated his observations into a political platform. Bush encouraged the country with
a “United we Stand” slogan to solidify America’s stance against Osama Bin Laden, and
terrorists. 39 Politicians forgot partisan lines, supported a fight against terrorism, and
agreed with President Bush’s sentiments.
Since 9/11 members of society became more conservative in societal measures to
reaffirm traditional values and tight national security measures. 40 Also because of the
surprise of the 9/11, it was believed that the president should have greater authority to
best restore the nation and combat against terrorism. Therefore, Americans desired an
authoritative executive figure, just like the public approved of Senator McCarthy in
1950’s.
A joint house resolution to Authorize Use of Military Force (AMUF) detailed
America’s strategy to defend the country against terrorism. The AMUF expanded
executive authority to President Bush stating “the President is authorized to use all
38
Cordyack, Brian. “President Bush’s Approval Ratings.” Washington Post. The Washintonpost.com.
:2005,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/graphic/2005/04/25/GR2005042500945.html
39
Conason, Joe. Big Lies: The Right Winged Propaganda Machine and How it Distorts the Truth. New
York: St. Martins Press, 2003. p. 191.
40
“Conservatism.” Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007. Enculopedia Britannica Online:
http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9117289.
12
necessary and appropriate force” that would come to include civil rights violations. 41 The
AMUF illustrates how the president was supported by Congress and the public.
Wiretapping or the ability of the monitor Americans phone conversations, exists
as the National Security Agency has the ability to listen in on citizen’s
telecommunication without a warrant. 42 President Bush signed the order with the
intentions “to intercept the international communications of people with known links to al
Qaeda and related news organization.” 43 The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)
brought suit against the US government for withholding protection of privacy under the
First and Fourth Amendments and the case is currently on appeal, signifying the
arguments between concerns for national security over civil rights.
Hence, Americans felt insecure after 9/11 and found Bush’s response helpful to
re-establish security and normalcy, which gave Americans a strategy to feel domestically
secure. Just as McCarthyism provided Americans with answers against the communists,
President Bush provided Americans with plan to fight terrorism. Therefore, the revival of
protective attitudes are obvious in present American culture.
NEO-MCCARTHYISM
Many current republicans are members of society who advocate a conservative
ideology, support greater executive authority, at the expense of civil rights. Nonetheless,
41
“To Authorize the Use of the United States Armed Forces against Iraq” H.J. Res. 114 Library of
Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c107:H.J.RES.64:
42
As of August the Federal Court ruled the NSA warrant less wiretapping as unconstitutional. In November
the case went on to appeal where it was again deemed unconstitutional. However President Bush clearly
wants to uphold the NSA’s wiretapping abilities and has promised to draft legislation to legalize the NSA’s
domestic surveillance systems.
“Bush Wiretapping Program Violates Federal Law and the Constitution, Say ACLU.” American
Civil Liberties Union. 14, November 2006.
http://www.aclu.org/safefree/nsaspying/27379prs20061114.html
43
Ibid.
13
the radical sect of the Republican Party supports a similar logic to that of McCarthyism
and this radicalization is referred to as Neo-McCarthyism.
Proponents of McCarthy adhere to a rigid plan to combat terrorism. A NeoMcCarthyist, Ann Coulter, argues McCarthy’s actions in the 1950’s equate him as an
American hero. Coulter suggests, McCarthy was our best protector from communist
infiltration. 44 Coulter and other Neo-McCarthyists, argue that Democrats were
incompetent in the 1950’s, and did not do enough to ensure national security. Coulter
compares modern Democrats of being too easy on civil rights, which allows terrorists to
easily strike against our country. Furthermore she cites how McCarthy’s targets are
rightly still considered communists, just as President Truman and Eisenhower’s
“incompetence and moral infirmity” doomed America into an arms race between the
Russians. 45 Coulter contends McCarthy was truthful and accurate in his attacks, and
thinks liberals have ruined McCarthy’s legacy. 46 Liberals are “treasonous” and “instantly
root for anarchy and against civilization.” 47
In all, America’s main political attitude has shifted since 9/11 to focus on the need
to uphold homeland security and to combat terrorism. Conservative mindsets rooted in
the Republican Party have provided the public with a means to feel confident in their
government to defend our country
V SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS
Since the Wheeling Address in February of 1950, McCarthy gained influence for
his campaign against disloyal Americans. For four years, McCarthy influenced the public
44
For further reading see: Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism.
New York: Crown Forum, 2003.
45
Ibid, p. 34.
46
Coulter, p. 95.
47
P. 292.
14
to make accusations that were unnecessary and divisive and malicious. His legacy will be
his role as the “judge jury, prosecutor, castigator, and press agent all in one.” 48
McCarthy was a dominating figure in American politics in the early 1950’s. His
unyielding support for traditional American values went hand in hand with his aggressive
desire to protect Americans against the threat of communism. It was McCarthy’s
antagonistic personality, and campaign against communists that generated much of
American anxiety. McCarthy’s campaign made Americans fearful that their way of life
was challenged and they needed him to ensure their safety.
Historical research proves the senator was wrong and strategic. He used
exaggerated and erroneous information. He relied on his allies in Congress and the media
to broadcast his message. His actions scared Americans and threatened US civil liberties.
The Venona Project verifies who were factual spy’s and how McCarthy’s
suspects were not connected to the spies identified in the Venona Project. However, some
assert McCarthy was justified to identify liberals of being treasonous communists and
they honor the senator for his efforts. Neo-McCarthyism is connected to current anxieties
towards terrorism. It is this strategic attitude which stands to challenge current American
civil liberties. Thus, McCarthyism was dangerous to America because the anxiety harmed
our confidence and respect for civil liberties. Currently in the aftermath of 9/11 our
country faces the same struggle. Neither McCarthyism nor Neo-McCarthyism can be
erased from American history, however acknowledging the advantages and disadvantages
of McCarthyism, we can make informed decision to guide our future social and political
endeavors.
48
Griswold, Ervin. “Have You No Sense of Decency?” US. Senate: Art & History Home, 2006,
http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Have_you_no_sense_of_de cency.htm .
15
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17
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