Download Realizing Malagasy Women`s Sexual Rights

Realizing Malagasy Women’s Sexual Rights: a Step towards Development
Zoly Harilala Rakotoniera
I.
Women as Important Elements in the Development of Madagascar:
“Let’s empower women because they play a central role in the development of the country”1
were the words used by Malagasy president, Marc Ravalomanana, to incite people to
participate in the campaign against poverty. Indeed, women can be valuable assets in
Madagascar’s economy as they make up more than half of the potentially active population.
The 2005 census has revealed that the number of females from ages 15 to 64 is 4,745,971
while the number of males of the same age is 4,657,346. 2
The National Report on Human Development also demonstrates that the tangible evolution
in the country’s economy, schooling and health matters is partly due to the participation of
women in economic activities. For the past ten years, the level of human development
indicators in Madagascar has risen from 0.388 to 0.477. It goes without saying that such
evolution results from the increase in the number of working women: 46.6 percent of
women worked in 1997, and in 2001 it reached 48.8 percent.3 Unfortunately, it is still a
generally acknowledged fact that the participation of Malagasy women in the economy is
insufficient despite the obvious effort to empower them.
II.
What Prevents Women from taking part in economically fructuous activities?
Many constraints prevent Malagasy women from being fulfilled and productive human
beings. According to the RDNH report, some of the most salient causes of women’s
inactivity are: impediments related to stereotyped gender roles, the fact that voters are
influenced by prejudices against women, women’s own behaviours which reflect
internalizations of gender inequality and the political and systematic discrimination against
women in general.4
This report has overlooked sexual and reproductive issues which we think are among the
major problems of Malagasy women. As we will see later, women’s incapacity to control
their sexuality, together with other forms of sexual violations, engender two main stumbling
blocks that keep women inactive: unhealthy maternity and illnesses.
A. Woman’s Inability to have control over her sexuality and fertility
Many Malagasy women are unaware of the fact that their body and their fecundity are
things they can control. This is in part due to unmet need for sexual education and
contraceptives. During her research on young women’s sexuality in Ambanja, a small town
1
Ravalomanana quoted in Madagascar Rapport National sur le Développement 2003
http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ma.html
3
Rapport National sur le Développement Humain, p24 (Translation mine)
4
RDNH p. 105
2
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in the north of Madagascar in the 90s, Lesley Sharp demonstrates how women do not have
access to sexual information and education. She illustrates her points with the cases of girls
who secretly use “avocado leaves, and the heavily-seeded katra… as abortifacients5. This is
the kind of sexual lore Malagasy women inherit from their ancestors and which is still in use
in some parts of the country. As a matter of fact, one of the few occasions during which
these young women are likely to get modern and scientific sexual education is at high
school. The students at the Catholic Academy where Sharp conducted her research, for
example, are “exposed to AIDS education through oblique references during general school
lectures on health and hygiene…and during discussions with peers.”6
As already said, this type of sexual education happened during the 90s socialist era, and it
goes without saying that things have changed since then. Indeed, many public and privaterun centres now provide information and education on sexual/reproductive matters. FISA,
Marie Stopes Madagascar, Top Reseau are among the most popular ones.
However, as surprising as it may seem, many women are still unfamiliar with any form of
contraception, as the investigation made by RDNH researchers below reveals:
TABLE 1: Percentage of women who use contraceptives in 20007
General percentage
Capital city
Other cities
Urban areas
Rural areas
Any Method
19,0
55,4
28,3
35,6
13,9
Any Modern Method
12,0
31,8
18,2
21,9
8,8
As we can see from the table, the use of the surest means of contraception is insignificant in
Madagascar, especially in rural areas. Such a situation raises the familiar question “why are
women unable to take care of their sexuality and fecundity?” that we will try to answer
later.
B. Maternity, illnesses and inactivity.
The specialists who worked on the report on the promotion of gender equality recognized
that “for women, the ability to choose the time to have children and their numbers means
more time to take an efficient part in public and economic life”8. Apart from the timeconsuming aspect of maternity, researchers show that it is an important cause of death in
Madagascar. During the 80s and 90s, out of 100.000 women who gave birth, around 600
died. It is similarly significant that 32.4 per cent of maternal mortality is due to miscarriages
and 40 per cent results from abortion.
5
http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9389.ch07.html
http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9389/9389.ch07.html
7
RDNH, p27
8
Idem (Translation mine)
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2
Other causes of death among women are sexually transmitted diseases including AIDS. It
has been proven that, due to biological, socio-cultural and economic factors, women are
more exposed to the dangers of HIV infection. During unprotected sexual intercourse, they
run greater risks of being infected than men. Statistics show that 53, 2 per cent of HIV
positive people in Madagascar are young women and their average age is 27.9 We can thus
assert that the threatening spread of AIDS in Madagascar might have harmful consequences
on the country’s economy as it mostly affects its major workforce: women.
C. Other aspects of Violations of Women’s Sexual Rights:
The first part of chapter II we have just seen has demonstrated that some of the basic sexual
rights of women, namely, “the right to decide freely and responsibly the number and
spacing of one’s children and to have the information and means to do so”10 are violated.
The following part will likewise show how other rights, especially “the right to have control
over and decide freely and responsibly on matters related to their sexuality, […] free of
coercion, discrimination and violence”11 are not respected.
Indeed, sexual exploitation of children and women is an alarming fact in the povertystricken areas of Madagascar. Tamatave in the east and Majunga in the north-west are cases
in point. The rate of sexually abused people is relatively high, and 73 per cent of them
declare that this situation is due to poverty. Women and children have recourse to
prostitution in order to make a living.
In Antananarivo, sexual harassment and violence is often seen at public places and at home.
Victims of incest, raped by friends or strangers are the most usual scenarios. Also, it is
important that the rate of sexual abuse is particularly high at schools.12 Most often it is the
high school teacher or the university professor who sexually harasses female students.
Another striking case in the capital of the country is the increasing number of women who
move to a rich country, especially in the west (because traffickers have so-called jobs to offer
them) and who end up becoming sex-workers.
In Fianarantsoa, another province in the highlands of Madagascar, a traditional and
thriving business is the selling of young women. Once a month, women are forced to gather
at a place called “tsenan’ampela” (literally girl fair) to be bought by those who are interested
and who will often exploit them sexually and physically.
But the most condemnable violation of women’s sexual right maybe the fact that there is no
specific and utterly appropriate punishment for sexual offenders against young girls and
women. Numerous women who are raped report their case to the police but many of the
rapists are unpunished. One girl was for example raped by three men at her home. When
the police found out who the aggressors were, they recognized their crime and were
9
RDNH, p109
http://www.indiana.edu/~kinsey/resources/valencia.html
11
http://www.indiana.edu/~kinsey/resources/valencia.html
12
http://www.onu.mg/snu/Docs/violencemg.pdf.
10
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imprisoned. A few days later however, they were released because of the intervention of a
relative.13
III.
How to Realize Malagasy Women’s Sexual Rights?
Realizing Malagasy women’s sexual rights is a long and difficult enterprise that requires the
participation of everybody. The solutions proposed in this paper are in no way exhaustive.
In our opinion, realizing sexual rights involves two major actions: protecting women’s
sexual rights and enabling them to express themselves sexually.
A. Protecting Malagasy Women’s Sexual Rights:
As already mentioned, one long-term project of the Ravalomanana regime is to reduce
gender inequality and to empower women. Some of the most tangible good points this
government and the previous ones have achieved are indeed the changes in legislation that
directly or indirectly affect women’s sexual rights.
One important innovation is related to the law number 2000-021 of November 30, 2000
which modified some articles of the penal code sanctioning sexual violence against women.
The particularity of this law is that it reinforces the sanctions against offenders who are
relatives of the victim, and when the victim is a pregnant woman or is under 15. Similarly,
the law number 98024, issued on January 25, 1999 punishes sexual harassments, especially
those directed towards children. In the same year, the new law number 98-024 sanctions
pimps more severely. Also, the inequality revealed by the punishment of adultery for men
and women was put to an end by the law number 2000-021 in 1999. Before that, punishment
for adulterous women was heavier than that for their male counterparts.
Other efforts to protect women’s sexual rights can also be seen at the community level, that
is, through social organizations. The help of UNFPA and other NGOs to facilitate women’s
access to sexual and reproductive health care is a case in point. Various groups have also
proposed some solutions; and even though they have not yet been realized, they are worth
mentioning because of their practical and realistic qualities. Here are some of them14:
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Popularization of women’s rights, including sexual rights.
Improving people’s security in general and women’s security in particular.
Creating more counselling centres for women who are victims of violence. Those
centres will also help to promote women’s sexual rights through diffusion of
information.
Involving state-run health centres in the promotion of sexual health, and in taking
care of victims of sexual violence.
Promoting women’s associations at every possible level.
Involving powerful leaders, such as religious figures in the fight against all sorts of
violence towards women.
http://www.onu.mg/snu/Docs/violencemg.pdf.
http//www.onu.mg/snu/Docs/violencemg.pdf
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Sanctioning violations of women’s rights which manifest themselves through
customs and traditions.
Civic education based on the ideas of equality and human rights should be
introduced in the middle-school curriculum.
Inciting the media to study the effect of sexual stereotypes perpetuated mostly by
advertisements which encourage discrimination and violence against women.
And last but not least, using the media to promote a positive image of women based
on her history.
We have mentioned the idea of promoting a positive image of women at the end of the list
because, in our opinion, it is one of the most important elements in the concept of women’s
sexual rights. Indeed, enabling women to realize themselves sexually implies giving them
the chance to live their sexuality freely. To be more explicit, living one’s sexuality freely
means being able to enjoy sex according to one’s wish: in terms of frequency and choice of
partner. Being free in one’s sexuality also involves a sense of responsibility, in other words it
means being able to avoid the potentially negative consequences of the sexual act.
Such things cannot be possible without changing the representation of women in Malagasy
culture. The two most prevailing images of Malagasy women are that of the goddess and the
slut. Both images, in their particular ways, imprison women in specific sexual roles that flout
their sexual rights. The last part of this paper is going to expose these images and how to
change them.
B. How to enable women to express themselves sexually?
1. Misrepresentation of women’s sexuality:
In a Christian and Patriarchal society like Madagascar, sex is taboo. Moreover, it is tacitly
agreed that it is men’s business. Thus excluded from the real meaning of this natural act,
woman is reduced to two major functions: that of the bearer of man’s seed and of the
instrument of his sexual satisfaction.
The image of woman as a goddess of fertility appears everywhere: through literature, the
media, and other forms of cultural expressions. It is clearly stated by cultural specialists
who assert that Malagasy women are placed on a pedestal and given a “divine quality, […]
which lies on her procreative function”.15 Similarly, visual representations of Malagasy
women put emphasis on the role of mother, as we can see in the two examples provided
below.
15
http://www.onu.mg/snu/Docs/violencemg.pdf.
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Picture 1
Picture 2
The two pictures which were taken at random from the internet are supposed to represent
Malagasy women. The fact that both women are photographed with their progeny
illustrates the meaning of motherhood as an inherent aspect of womanhood for Malagasy
women. We should also notice how the lower part of the body is overlooked on picture 1, a
fact that sheds light on the general view of woman’s body and sexuality as taboo. On
picture 2, the physicality of the woman is suggested by her breasts. They however do not
really convey sensuality but rather their functions as sources of food for the baby that
prominently appears on the mother’s lap.
This image reinforces the myth of the mother that puts a very big pressure on women: the
pressure to become mothers at all cost. Another impact of the prevalence of this image is the
fact that women are regarded as beings who cannot enjoy sex for its own sake. For many,
including women themselves, since sex means procreation, therefore it cannot be a source of
pleasure and well- being at the same time.
Such denial of female sexual pleasure is better conveyed through the representation of
woman as slut. However, the main difference between them is that the figure of the
prostitute is not as freely and widely represented as the mother image. Marginalized, sex
workers are in fact the object of society’s contempt because they seem to embody aggressive
sexuality and therefore transgress the code. Thus, sluts are taboo subjects which nonetheless
haunt the Malagasy psyche. Rarely represented visually, one learns about the existence and
the conditions of prostitutes only through occasional health reports or documentaries about
the underdogs of society.
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One of these few works, which give an interesting portrayal of the prostitute, is a novel
entitled Ny Zanako.(My Child). It is a prize-winning novel written in Malagasy and which is
studied at high school level. Significantly, two of the novel’s main characters are
embodiments of the two images mentioned above. One represents the saintly mother whose
sexuality is associated with childbearing only and who is extremely happy in such a role, as
this passage from the novel relates: “… Variana teo am-pandinihana ny hasambarany izy.
Hany mbola maneno eo amin’ny sofiny ka mampanonofy antoandro ny fitiavany dia ny
filazan’Ingahy Mpitandrina fa “mpivady izy manomboka izao, ary injany mbola
mamolivoly ny fanahiny koa ny tso-drano natolotra azy mivady: Maroa fara sy
mihabetasaha ary mamenoa ny tany”16
The other character embodies what Malagasy people consider as moral laxity. She is a
woman who has sex with a rich foreigner in order to earn a living. In this role, she is
objectified by the man who only sees her as a “kilalao sarobidy […] mpanome fahafaham-po
ny olona ambony, […] ny fijery an’i Tojia mainka mampangotraka tsy tenehina ny
fanirian’ny filan’ny nofo tsy mahalala onony”17. The writer here voices the general vision of
woman as a slut: an object for whom sex means only satisfying the man. Indeed, nowhere in
the novel are the point of view and the feelings of this character given to the reader, a fact
that drives home the idea of denial of her sexuality.
In our opinion, these two images, which are powerful in Malagasy popular culture, control
women’s sexuality. Therefore, in order to enable women to experience their sexuality
positively, we should make an effort to stop their popularization. But above all, the
representation of women’s sexuality should be changed.
2. Changing the representation of women’s sexuality.
Our research on the topic of women’s sexuality has led us to the discovery of an interesting
book entitled Les Us et Coutumes Malagasy Liés aux relations sexuelles: analyse
anthropologique, written by Roger Andriamahenina and Tsaboto Jean. As its title indicates,
it is an anthropological study of the “Mahafaly” tribe who lives mostly in the north of
Madagascar. This tribe is distinguished by some very unique customs related to sexual
practices which the writers realistically render in the book. What we found particularly
interesting in this book is the account of female sexual mores and practices. In fact, the
priority and care given to the sexuality of Mahafaly females reflect the kind of respect for
women’s rights that can enable them to express themselves sexually.
As a matter of fact, the Mahafaly receives a rather complete and direct education at a fairly
early age. For girls, it is the older sister, the mother or the grandmother who gives all the
necessary information related to sexual matters. Generally, the elders use direct and explicit
words to give advice on the appropriate gestures and behaviours girls should have, and
16
Clarisse Ratsifandrihamanana, Ny Zanako, Boky Faharoa, Antananarivo: Librairie Mixte (1967), 1999, p 27.
Translation: She was lost in her happy thoughts. She could still hear the priest’s declaration that they were
husband and wife, and that makes her daydream. His blessing “have many children and people the earth” was
vividly present in her very soul.
17
Clarisse Ratsifandriahamanana, Ny Zanako, Boky Voalohany, Antananarivo : Librairie Mixte (1967), 1999,
p171. Translation: Tojia is a precious toy which gives satisfaction to rich men …one’s unquenchable sexual
appetite flares up just by looking at her.
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sometimes they use jokes. Most of the time, sexual education is given to teenagers during
the “havoria”, a traditional Mahafaly ceremony.
Another special aspect of the Mahafaly’s sexual mores is the freedom of each individual in
his or her sexual acts. Such a situation can be seen during “havoria” where everybody can
enjoy sexual intercourse with anybody without thinking of any engagement or bonds. The
same importance attached to sexual pleasure is seen in the tips and advice they give each
other in order to have better sex:
Original version18
Quelques pratiques pour augmenter le plaisir
− Absorption d’infusion ou tisane, préparée à base de certaines plantes au goût très
amer (handy, katrafay, basy…) pour les hommes
− Prendre un bain de katrafay, tout en massant les muscles pour dissiper la fatigue
chez les hommes
− Se laver avec de l’eau du katrafay, ou du vaho pour rendre le vagin plus étroit
− Certains garnements utilisent le taritarike qui provoquerait chez la femme une envie
permanente de faire l’amour.
Translation (mine)
Some tips on how to increase sexual pleasure:
− Man should drink herbal tea such as katrafay, basy, handy, vahatramalona
− Man should take a bath with katrafay and massage their muscle to get rid of fatigue
− Woman should wash themselves with katrafay or vaho so that her vagina tightens
− It is common for women to drink taritarike so as to remain sexually aroused for a
long time.
Such kinds of tips are numerous and familiar for Mahafaly people, and they could be
personalized. For example there are some suggestions for women who have just given birth,
for women after menopause or for widows.
The purpose of this brief exposition of the sexual lores of the Mahafaly as exposed by
Andriamahenina and Tsaboto is to show how a group of Malagasy people views sexuality
from a different light. It makes us think that it is not impossible to change the negative
representation of female sexuality that pervades Malagasy culture and that the Mahafaly
tribe’s attitude towards sex can be used as a model for a new and more positive
representation of women’s sexuality. Here are some of the most important ideas drawn from
Mahafaly sexual practice, on which such a representation could be based:
9 Sex is something one can and should talk about because it is important for oneself
and for the community.
9 Talking about sex helps one to know more about it, and therefore to avoid
inconveniences related to it, and to enjoy it more.
18
Andriamahenina Roger et Tsaboto Jean, Les us et coutumes malagasy liés aux relations sexuelles : analyse
anthropologique, 2002.
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9 Putting emphasis on the fact that sex means pleasure and well-being.
9 Sexual pleasure and well-being should come naturally, but if it’s not the case, there
are other methods to increase sexual pleasure that everyone can use.
9 The sexual act involves two persons, not only the man.
9 Women should not be reduced to sexual passivity. They should not contend
themselves with giving pleasure to their partner, but can and should also take care of
their own pleasure through different means.
9 Finally, sexuality is something one can control, one just needs to know how to.
As a conclusion, we can say that changing the Malagasy attitude towards sexuality is very
important. Indeed it will free women from the pressure to be mothers at all costs and from
the tribulation of the different forms of sexual abuse. We think that achieving these two
things is a crucial step towards Madagascar’s development because first it will be a good
way to regulate the rather rapidly increasing population, and second it will enable people to
concentrate on other equally serious problems.
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