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BRIEF CONTENTS Acknowledgments Preface xi xi About the Authors xi Theory Building in Communication . . . . . . . . . . . .1 PART I 1 Introduction to Studying Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 Perspective on Communication Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3 The Development of Approaches to Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4 Paradigms and Communication Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Theory Building in Major Approaches to Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109 PART II 5 Trait Approaches 6 Persuasion Approaches 7 Verbal Behavior Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 8 Nonverbal Behavior Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 v vi Brief Contents Theory Building in Communication Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249 PART III 9 Interpersonal Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251 10 Group Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 11 Organizational Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 12 Mass Media Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 13 Tributary Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 A Appendix A: Communication Research Methods Conclusion Glossary 455 459 References 505 Subject Index Name Index 543 573 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 CONTENTS Acknowledgments Preface xi xi About the Authors xi PART I Theory Building in Communication 1 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Studying Communication 3 Issues in Understanding Communication 5 Basic Components and Concepts 5 Defining Communication 7 Characteristics of Communication 9 Points of Controversy about Communication 11 Communication and Intent 11 Communication as Planned Behavior 14 Transactional Nature of Communication 17 The Functions of Communication 18 The Importance of Communication 19 Creating Cooperation 19 Acquiring Information 21 Forming Self-Concept 22 Communication as Entertainment 24 In the Evolution of Ideas 25 The Interdisciplinary Approach to Communication 26 Summary 28 Key Terms 28 CHAPTER 2 Perspectives on Communication Theory 29 The Scientific Method 30 Theory Building through Deductive and Inductive Approaches 31 Identifying Variable to Be Investigated 31 Development of Hypotheses 32 Conduct an Empirical Investigation 33 Compare Results to the Original Hypothesis 33 Assess Theoretical Significance of the Findings and Identify Threats to Validity 34 Constitutions of Quality Communication Theory 34 Communication Theory Development 38 Fundamental Functions and Goals of Communication Theory 39 Fundamental Goals of Theory 41 How Many Theories Are Enough? 43 Metatheoretical Contributions to Communication Theory 44 Seven Theoretical Traditions 45 The Sociopsychological Tradition 46 The Cybernetic Tradition 47 The Rhetorical Tradition 47 The Phenomenological Tradition 48 The Sociocultural Tradition 48 The Critical Tradition 49 The Semiotic Tradition 49 Summary 51 Key Terms 51 vii viii Contents CHAPTER 3 The Development of Approaches to Communication 53 The Rhetorical Tradition in the Development of Communication Theory 53 Basic Rhetorical Concepts 55 Descriptive Models of Communication 62 The Schramm Model of Communication 62 Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication 64 The McCroskey Model of Communication 65 The Ruesch and Bateson Model of Communication 66 The Westley-MacLean Model of Communication 67 Major Approaches in the Development of Contemporary Communication Theory 69 The Yale Studies on Communication 69 An Information Approach to Communication 71 Berlo’s Process Approach to Communication 73 Style-Specific or Special Communication Theories 75 General Theories of Communication 76 Cognitive Dissonance 77 Symbolic Convergence 77 Burke’s Theory of Dramatism 77 Contextual Approaches to Communication 79 Summary 81 Key Terms 82 The Communibiological Perspective 91 Strengths of the Communibiological Perspective 94 Weaknesses of the Communibiological Perspective 95 The Rules Perspective 96 Strengths of the Rules Perspective 100 Weaknesses of the Rules Perspective 101 The Systems Perspective 101 Strengths of the Systems Perspective 105 Weaknesses of the Systems Perspective 106 Summary 108 Key Terms 108 PART II Theory Building in Major Approaches to Communication 109 CHAPTER 5 Trait Approaches 111 Contexts, Traits, and States 112 The Cross-situational Consistency Framework 113 Apprehension Traits 117 Presentation Traits 122 Adaptation Traits 124 Aggression Traits 131 Summary 142 Key Terms 142 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 6 Paradigms and Communication Theory 83 Persuasion Approaches 143 Paradigms and Communication Theory 83 The Covering Laws Perspective 84 Positivistic versus Probabilistic Conception of Laws 86 Discovering Certain “Laws” of Communication 87 “Tools” of the Law-Governed Communication Researcher 89 Strengths of the Laws Perspective 90 Weaknesses of the Laws Perspective 90 Conceptualizing Persuasion 144 Six Dimensions of Persuasion Situations 146 Self-awareness and Persuasion 146 Approaches to Understanding Persuasion 147 The Variable-Analytical Approach 147 Personality Traits and Persuasion 149 Research on Message Variables 152 The Source Credibility Approach 157 Cognitive Dissonance Theory 159 Ego-Involvement,or Social Judgment Theory 162 Contents The Theory of Reasoned Action 165 The Theory of Planned Behavior 169 Elaboration Likelihood Theory 172 Compliance-Gaining Message Selection 176 Cialdini’s Persuasive Heuristics 179 Preventing Persuasion 181 Summary 183 Key Terms 183 CHAPTER 7 Verbal Behavior Approaches 185 Signs, Symbols, and Signals 185 Language and Meaning 187 Language and Perception 188 Theory of Linguistic Relativity 188 Question Phrasing 190 Language and Power 191 Communicating Power and Status 191 Sex, Gender, and Power: Differences in Verbal Behavior 192 Language Intensity and Opinionation 193 Theoretical Approaches to Verbal Behavior 196 Language Expectancy Theory 199 The Conversation and Discourse Analytic Perspectives 205 Conversation Analysis Theory 209 Summary 213 Key Terms 213 CHAPTER 8 Nonverbal Behavior Approaches 215 Affective-Cognitive Dimensions of Communication 216 Contextual Nature of Nonverbal Communication 217 Nonverbal Behavior and Intentionality 218 Nonverbal Communication Abilities 219 Functions of Nonverbal Communication 221 Sending Uncomfortable Messages 221 Forming Impressions 222 Making Relationships Clear 223 Regulating Interaction 224 Influencing People 225 ix Reinforcing and Modifying Verbal Messages 226 Expectancy Violations Theory 227 Interaction Adaptation Theory 231 Strengths and Weaknesses of IAT 234 Nonverbal Immediacy and Cognitive Valence Theory 235 An Extension of Nonverbal Immediacy— Cognitive Valence Theory 238 Interpersonal Deception Theory 241 Summary 247 Key Terms 247 PART III Theory Building in Communication Contexts 249 CHAPTER 9 Interpersonal Contexts 251 Uncertainty Reduction Theory 252 Three Stages of Initial Interactions 252 Uncertainty Reduction Axioms 252 Uncertainty Reduction Theorems 253 Moving Beyond Initial Interaction Stages 255 Strategies to Reduce Uncertainty 256 A Test of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 256 Predicted Outcome Value Theory 257 Attraction Theories and Relational Development 258 The Interpersonal Goal-Oriented theory of Attraction 258 Reinforcement Theory and Attraction 259 Similarity and Interpersonal Attraction 260 Evaluating the Attraction-Reinforcement Research 261 Relationship Interaction Stages Model 263 The Theory of Interpersonal Communication Motives 265 Two Rules-based /Human Action General Theories of Communication 269 Constructivism 269 Coordinated Management of Meaning 272 x Contents A Systems Model of Relational Interaction 276 Summary 277 Key Terms 277 CHAPTER 10 Group Context 279 Nature of Groups 279 Group Size 279 Types of Groups 280 Roles 281 Leadership 283 Conflict 285 Conformity 286 Functional Theory of Group Decision Quality 288 Theory of Groupthink 290 Multiple Sequence Model of Group Decisions 294 Summary 298 Key Terms 298 CHAPTER 11 Organizational Contexts 299 Classical Management Perspectives 299 Scientific Management Theory 300 Bureaucracy Management Theory 301 Effective Management Theory 301 Human Relations Management Perspectives 303 Human Resource Management Perspective 305 System 4 Management Theory 305 X, Y Management Theory 306 Theory Z of Management 307 Model I and Model II Theory 309 Managerial Grid Theory 310 Theory of Independent Mindedness 313 Theories of Organizational Leadership 315 Trait Approach to Leadership 315 Situational Approach to Leadership 317 Exchange Approaches to Leadership 317 Worker Motivational Theories 319 Hierarchy of Needs Theory 320 Motivator Hygiene Theory 320 Acquired Needs Theory 322 Organizational Socialization 323 Model of Organizational Assimilation 323 Organizational Information Processing 325 Information Systems Theory 325 Organizational Ethical Perspectives and Theories 326 Practices of Ethical Organizations 330 Summary 331 Key Terms 332 CHAPTER 12 Mass Media Contexts 335 Mass Communication in Contemporary Society 335 Early Theory-building Efforts in Mass Communication 337 The “Magic Bullet”Theory 337 The Two-Step Flow Theory 338 Diffusion Theory 339 The Functional Approach to Mass Communication Theory 340 Agenda-setting Theory and Mass Communication 342 Mass Communication and Parasocial Interaction 344 Influences of Interpersonal Communication Theory 345 Measuring Parasocial Interaction 346 Uses and Gratifications Theory 348 Objectives of the Theory 348 Examples of Uses and Gratifications Research 349 Criticisms of the Theory 353 Cultivation Theory 354 The Interaction of Media and Reality 354 Heavy versus Light Television Viewers 355 Refinement of Cultivation Theory 356 Criticisms of the Theory 356 The Spiral of Silence Theory 357 Media Dependency Theory 361 Theories of Mediated Interpersonal Communication 365 A Theory of Mediated Interpersonal Communication 366 Social Information Processing Theory 367 Summary 370 Key Terms 371 Contents CHAPTER 13 APPENDIX A Tributary Contexts 373 Communication Research Methods 423 Family Communication 374 Conceptualizations of the Family 374 Characteristics of the Family Communication Context 375 Families as Systems 376 Fitzpatrick’s Typology of Couple Types 378 Communication Privacy Management Theory 379 The Argumentative Skill Deficiency Model of Intrafamily Violence 384 Health Communication 385 Functions of Communication in the Health Context 386 Communication Contexts within Health Communication 387 The Systems Perspective 392 The Health Belief Model 394 Uncertainty Management Theory 397 Intercultural Communication 401 Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory 401 Face Negotiation Theory 404 Model of Face Negotiation 406 Cultural Factors 406 Individual Factors 408 Relational/Situational Factors 409 Conflict Styles 409 Cross-Cultural Adaptation Theory 411 Political Communication 415 Symbolic Convergence Theory and Political Communication 416 Agenda-Setting Theory in Political Communication 417 A Constructivist View of Political Communication 419 Summary 421 Key Terms 422 The Scientific Method 424 Fundamental Concepts 425 Variable 426 Definitions 428 Hypothesis 429 Research Questions 430 Sampling 431 Research Design 433 General Purpose of Research Design 434 Achieving Control by Random Assignment 435 Validity of Designs 436 Experimental Effects 439 Controlling Experimental Influence 440 Experimental Research Designs 441 Nonexperimental Research Designs 443 Measurement 446 Rating Scales 447 Behavioral Observation 449 Content Analysis 450 Physiological Measures 451 Summary 452 Key Terms 453 Conclusion Glossary 455 459 References 505 Subject Index Name Index 543 573 xi