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Wildlife - “Al
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Wildlife
To study and understand wildlife, one has to look at the environment that supports
the wildlife. All living things on earth are linked to the non-living and living parts
of the environment that provide for their needs. All things are connected.
Another way of thinking of this is studying our house. This is the study of ecology.
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earth is our house and the house for all living organisms on the planet. The
environments which make up our house have two parts, the abiotic and biotic. The
biotic portion of the environment is the living portion and includes all of the
organisms present. The abiotic portion is the non-living factors of the environment
often called the limiting factors. Abiotic parts of the environment include
sunlight, temperature, precipitation or water available, and soil type. Thus ecology
is the study of the relationships among organisms and between the organisms and
their non-living environment. Organisms must have food, water, and nutrients to
survive. They extract necessary nutrients from soil and water, and they depend
upon precipitation, ambient temperature, and sunlight for growth. Some organisms
can live in extremely hot temperatures; and others can survive in extremely cold
conditions; but most prefer temperatures between these extremes. The same is true
for water. Some organisms live in very dry deserts, and some must live in the
water.
The Organization of Life
Abiotic –the nonliving portion of an
environment,
including
temperature, soil,
sunlight, rainfall,
and water which are
the most recognized
limiting factors in
an environment.
They will determine
what can and cannot
live in an
environment and the
number of each
species that an
environment can
support (carrying
capacity).
Biotic –the living
portion of an
environment.
Limiting factors physical or
chemical factors
that limit the
existence, growth,
abundance, or
distribution of an
organism
Ecology –the study
of living things and
how they interact
with one another
and the non-living
environment.
By definition, to be living, an organism must be at least one cell. There are many
organisms that are just one cell, and they are among some of the most important on
the planet. Much of the phytoplankton (small floating plant-like protists and
algae) of our freshwater streams, ponds and lakes, and of our oceans are one-celled
algae and diatoms. They are the majority of the base of the food chain in these
environments. Bacteria, which are also one-celled organisms, are very important as
decomposers, which break down dead organisms and waste and return nutrients to
the soil for use again by other organisms. These living cells are made up of atoms
of elements and those atoms joined together form molecules. There are many
Decomposers –
organisms which
break down dead
organic matter and
return nutrients to
the soil –fungi and
bacteria.
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elements necessary for life, but six are commonly recognized as very important: C
(carbon), H (hydrogen), O (oxygen), N (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), and S (sulfur).
Life has a high degree of organization, even at the one-celled level. In multicellular
organisms, which include fungi, plants, and animals, the cells are organized into
tissues. The tissues form organs such as the heart or stomach. The organs make up
a system such as the circulatory system or digestive system. All of the systems
form an individual living thing called an organism.
When we study organisms and their relationships to their environment, we are
usually looking at the higher levels of organization. All of the organisms of one
type living in a certain area at the same time, such as all of the blue jays in your
yard, are a population. Organisms of a specific population are members of the
same species.
Organism –an
individual living
thing.
Population –all
organisms of one
species living in a
certain area at a
given time.
Community - all
populations of living
things in the same
area.
A population of organisms interacts with the other living things in the same area.
This is called a community. An example would be a pond community, which
includes everything living in the pond.
Ecosystem –all of
the living and nonliving parts of an
environment and
their interactions.
Populations in a community are connected by relationships, such as predator-prey
or parasite-host among others. These relationships are very important to
understanding the roles wildlife play in their community and the population number
that can be supported in a community. All of the living organisms, the community,
and the non-living parts of the environment are called an ecosystem. The
ecosystem not only includes the interactions between the living organisms, but also
the interactions between the organisms and the non-living (abiotic) environment.
An example would be the plants and organisms that can live with the temperatures,
sunlight, little precipitation or available water, and soils of a desert.
Biosphere –all of
the areas on earth
where life exists
including the
atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and
lithosphere. It is all
of the ecosystems on
earth.
All of the ecosystems on earth make up the ecosphere, also called the biosphere.
The ecosphere is all areas of the earth where life can exist, from the atmosphere, to
the depths of the oceans, and into the soil or ground. Every organism depends on
all of the parts of the earth: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the lithosphere.
The atmosphere (the thin layer of gases that surrounds the earth) provides oxygen
needed by animals and carbon dioxide needed by plants. The atmosphere also
plays an important role in our weather and the cycling of water to continually
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freshwater, saltwater, ice and glaciers. All life on earth must have water to survive.
The lithosphere is the solid part of the earth –the rocks and the soil formed from
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depend on soil for the water, nutrients, oxygen, and support they need to grow.
Energy In Ecosystems
Energy is the ability to do work. Every organism requires energy as it engages in
biological work, which is the processes of life –growing, moving, maintaining
their body, repairing damaged tissues, getting food, and reproducing. The only
form of
Atmosphere –The
thin layer of gases
surrounding the
earth.
Hydrosphere –All
of the waters on the
earth.
Lithosphere –The
solid surface of the
earth, the crust.
Ecosphere –all of
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organisms
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sunlight that directly or indirectly provides the energy for all life, the freshwater
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streams, rivers, land, plants, and animals. This freshwater then travels through the
water cycle and returns to the land to provide the water supply of surface water and
groundwater. The weather and the at
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temperatures. The amount of precipitation and the temperatures of an area play a
role in breaking down rocks to form the soil, in which the land plants grow and
from which they get the necessary nutrients. Animals then get their nutrients from
eating plants or eating animals that eat plants.
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but it does change form. During the
process of changing forms some of the energy is lost as heat. This is very
important for the food chain. Plants and some other organisms can make their own
food and get energy from that food, but the animals that eat the plants do not get all
of the energy the plants got from their food. Some of the energy is lost as heat
when the plant does work –grows, reproduces, or heals.
Photosynthesis and Respiration
Photosynthesis and respiration are the two processes that give organisms the food
and energy necessary for life. Photosynthesis is the process of making food, and
respiration is the process for getting energy from the food.
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provides the food for most all other organisms on the earth. Plants, algae, and
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energy. The energy is stored as sugar. These organisms and all other organisms
then use the sugar to get the energy they need. Organisms get their energy from the
sugar by breaking it down in a process called respiration. These two processes,
photosynthesis and respiration, are just the opposite of one another. Both of these
processes are essential for all life.
Photosynthesis –
The process used by
plants, algae, and
blue-green bacteria
to make food (sugar)
from sunlight,
carbon dioxide and
water.
Photosynthesis
Carbon Dioxide + Water + Sunlight
CO2
+
H2O
Sugar
+
(Glucose)
C6H12O6
+
Oxygen
O2
+ Light energy
=
=
Sugar + Oxygen + Water
(Glucose)
C6H12O6
+ O2
+
H2O
Respiration
= Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
=
CO2
+
H2O
Respiration –The
process used by
organisms to get
energy from food.
+ energy to do work
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Oxygen –Carbon Dioxide Cycle
To make sugar by photosynthesis, plants and other photosynthetic organisms use
carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. When the plants, animals and other organisms
break down sugar for energy by respiration, they use oxygen and give off carbon
dioxide. In this way the two gases, carbon dioxide and oxygen, are constantly
circulated in what is call the oxygen –carbon dioxide cycle. Plants get the oxygen
they need from the soil through their roots. This oxygen is taken into the soil from
the atmosphere as organisms tunnel into the soil making air spaces and from the
natural soil pore spaces. Decomposers break down dead matter and release stored
carbon dioxide from the remains of plants and animals.
Oxygen-Carbon
Dioxide Cycle –the
continuous cycle
that supplies oxygen
needed by all life
and the carbon
dioxide needed by
plants and other
photosynthetic
organisms. (for
drawing see
Aquatics section.)
Earth Is A Closed System
What does that mean? Earth receives a continuous supply of energy from the sun
and releases heat energy back to space. So, in terms of energy, earth is an open
system. Energy comes in, and energy goes out. This is not true of everything else
on earth. Earth is a closed system for all matter. All of the essential mineral
nutrients, water, and gases needed for life that are here on earth today were present
at the beginning. Earth gets only minute amounts of new matter from space. All
matter on earth must be recycled. These gases, minerals, and water have been
recycled numerous times and must continue to cycle for life to survive.
Essential elements
for life must be
recycled:
water,
nitrogen,
oxygen,
carbon, phosphorus,
sulfur, and many
other minerals.
The Water Cycle
Water is the essential fluid of life. The bodies of all organisms are made up largely
of water. Organisms need a continuous supply of freshwater to survive. The water
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water and groundwater. Plants take their water from the soil through their roots.
Animals get the water they need by drinking surface water or from the food they
eat.
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The Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is one of the nutrients necessary for all life. It is essential for good plant
growth, and other organisms get the nitrogen they need either from plants or from
eating the organisms that consume plants. Nitrogen makes up 78% of our
atmosphere, but plants, animals and most organisms cannot use nitrogen from the
atmosphere. Plants get the nitrogen they need from the soil. Nitrogen enters the
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ning or by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These special bacteria are in the soil, usually found on the
roots of certain types of plants called legumes. Peas, red clover, and soybeans are
examples of plants that are legumes. Blue-green bacteria are important nitrogen
fixing bacteria in aquatic environments. Nitrogen also enters the soil from
decomposition of organic matter (breaking down things that were once living) or
animal wastes. As this material is broken down by the decomposers, the nitrogen
that is in them is returned to the soil. Nitrogen can also be added to the soil and
water artificially by fertilizers, which contain inorganic (non-living) minerals
including nitrogen.
Legumes –plants,
such as red clover
and peas, which
have nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in growths
called nodules on
their roots. They
are able to take
nitrogen from the
atmosphere and add
it to the soil where
plants can use the
nitrogen.
Sulfur Cycle –The
movement of sulfur
in different chemical
forms from the
environment to
organisms and then
back to the
environment.
Phosphorus Cycle –
The process by
which phosphorus
cycles from the land
to ocean sediments
and back to the land
and organisms.
The Phosphorus Cycle and Sulfur Cycle
As with nitrogen, plants must obtain the phosphorus and sulfur they need from the
soil. Other organisms get these nutrients from eating plants or the organisms that
eat plants. Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere as it cycles, but stays on the
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owly. Phosphorus is both released into the soil
and cycled when surface rocks are weathered and eroded into water bodies where
they sink and form sediments. Over long periods of time, the sediment transforms
into rock and is uplifted by plate tectonic act
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Sulfur is also found in rocks and mineral salts.
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Water running over the rock wears them down and carries phosphorus and sulfur
into the soil, where it can be used by plants. The phosphorus and sulfur are then
passed to the animals that eat the plants and on up the food chain as those animals
are eaten. Unlike phosphorus, sulfur cycles through the atmosphere released from
volcanoes and the decomposition of organic matter in swamps, marshes, and bogs.
Sulfur must return to the soil to be useful to plants and enter the food chain. When
decomposers break down plant or animal matter or wastes, phosphorus and sulfur
are released to the soil to be reused by plants.
The Flow of Energy Through Ecosystems
The movement of energy in a one-way direction through an ecosystem is called
energy flow. All energy in an ecosystem begins with the energy from sunlight.
Some of the energy is stored by plants in sugars made by photosynthesis. The
energy is passed on to herbivores and ultimately to carnivores through a process
called a food chain, which is a simple model of what eats what and the flow of
energy from one organism to the next.
During respiration, all living things release the energy to do the work required to
grow, repair body tissues, move, keep warm, or reproduce. While the organism is
doing these things, some of the energy is lost to the environment as heat. The
organism that consumes a plant eating organism does not get all of the energy
originally received from the plant. As a general rule of movement up the food
chain, each organism gets only about 10% of the energy that was received by the
organism it eats. This relationship of the flow of energy through the food chain is
known as the energy pyramid, and it helps explain why an ecosystem can only
support a certain number of animals at each level of the food chain. The energy
pyramid clearly shows that fewer and fewer organisms can be supported as you
move up the food chain to the top predators. The number of animals that can be
supported at each level is called a numbers pyramid or pyramid of numbers.
Food Chain –The
direct relationship
of what is eaten by
what that shows the
flow of energy from
one organism to the
next as each
organism eats and is
then eaten by
another.
Energy pyramid –a
diagram that shows
how energy is lost
from one level of the
food chain to the
next.
Numbers Pyramid
or Pyramid of
Numbers - a
diagram that shows
the reducing number
of organisms that
can be supported at
each level of the
food chain.
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Niches –The roles wildlife play
The role played by each organism within its ecosystem is called a niche, which
includes what the organism eats, what it is eaten by, which organisms it competes
with, and how it interacts with the non-living environment. The niche is also the
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Niche –The role or
position an
organism has in its
environment. It
includes all
interactions with
both living and nonliving parts of the
ecosystem.
Producers: The base of the food chain
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producers. Plants, algae, and blue-green bacteria - all producers - are the base of
the food chain. They range in size from microscopic phytoplankton to giant
redwood trees hundreds of feet tall.
Consumers
All other organisms, including all animals, are consumers. Consumers eat plants or
other organisms to get the food and energy they need. Consumers are divided into
a number of groups:
Primary Consumers are those organisms that eat plants. They are known as
herbivores.
Herbivores eat plants (rabbits, squirrels, deer, beaver, and
groundhogs are examples).
Secondary Consumers are carnivores that eat the herbivores.
Carnivores eat meat. They eat herbivores or other carnivores.
(Foxes, snakes, or owls eating voles, or wolves eating elk are
examples of secondary consumers.)
Tertiary Consumers are also carnivores. They eat secondary consumers.
(A hawk eating a snake is an example.)
Other Consumers:
Omnivores:
Omnivores are animals that eat both plants and animals. Gray foxes,
wild boars, southern flying squirrels, humans, rats, wild turkey, and
black bears are examples of omnivores.
Detritivores:
Detritivores are organisms that eat detritus. Detritus is dead organic
matter and waste products. Detritus includes feces, bits of decaying
flesh or plant matter, and leaf litter. Detritivores are very common
in aquatic environments. Snails, clams, fiddler crabs, earthworms,
and millipedes are examples of detritivores.
Decomposers –Na
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n-up crew and recyclers
Decomposers, the bacteria and fungi, are a special group of consumers. As they
consume dead organisms for the food and energy they need, they return vital
mineral nutrients to the soil where producers (plants) can reuse them.
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Decomposers are always at the end of any food chain. They are very important to
ecosystems. Without decomposers, the land and water would be littered with dead
plant and animal matter, and mineral nutrients would not be recycled.
Food Chains and Food Webs –Who eats whom –The path of Energy through an
Ecosystem
In any ecosystem, the energy flows through a series of organisms –from a producer
to a herbivore and then to a carnivore or several carnivores and finally to a
decomposer. This energy flow from one organism to the next is called a food
chain. A food chain shows who eats whom from one organism to the next.
Food Chain –a
simple model of how
matter and energy
move through a
community.
Food Web –model
that shows all the
possible feeding
relationships in a
community.
These simple food chains, of one animal always eating one type of plant or animal
rarely exist in ecosystems. What really happens is that animals eat a variety of
plants or animals that are available in the ecosystem. A diagram that shows this
more realistic view of what is eaten is called a food web. A food web shows the
complex interactions among food chains of an ecosystem and is a more realistic
picture of feeding patterns within an ecosystem.
Deciduous Forest
Food Web
All organisms
within a food web
will have waste
products
consumed by
decomposers, and
when they die,
they will be
broken down by
decomposers.
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Feeding Relationships
Organisms in ecosystems may have a variety of relationships with each other.
Some organisms have predator-prey relationships. Some may live together in a
symbiotic relationship. Some may be in competition with others.
Predator-Prey:
A predator is an organism that kills and eats another organism. Prey is the
organisms that are eaten. Examples of this relationship could include a caterpillar
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alligator snapping turtle eating a frog.
The predator-prey relationship has led to all types of adaptations –predators
finding better ways to catch prey and prey species finding ways not to be eaten or
to escape predators. The eyes of many birds have adapted to help them be
successful predators. The osprey can see fish from high above. It then folds its
wings and makes a high-speed dive to ambush its prey. Fish are shaded with darker
colors on their top side to make them harder to see. Many plants have developed
toxins or poisons to keep from being eaten, such as milkweed. In turn, animal
species have developed immunity to the poisons and some use the poisons for their
own protection, such as the monarch butterfly using the milkweed poisons. The
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protect itself from predators. Another species of butterfly, the viceroy uses
mimicry. The viceroy looks very much like the monarch butterfly, which
predators have learned tastes bad and avoid. By mimicry, the viceroy, takes
advantage of this to help protect itself. Predators often use a similar strategy to
increase their chances of catching prey. The goldenrod spider uses camouflage.
This spider is the same color as the yellow and white flowers in which it hides to
ambush its prey.
Scavengers
Many organisms do not kill other organisms for food or eat live organisms but are
meat eaters. These organisms eat the bodies of dead animals called carcasses or
carrion. They may be the bodies of animals that have died of natural causes or of
animals killed by a predator. Vultures are a well-known example. When you see
vultures circling, it often signals that something is dead or dying. The American
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sink into the soil. The beetle lays its eggs in the carcass, which will feed the adult
beetles and their developing young.
Symbiosis –Living Together
Many organisms live in symbiotic relationships. Symbiosis exists when an
organism lives in, on, or in close association with another organism. There are
three types of symbiosis: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
Mutualism is a relationship in which both organisms benefit or are helped
by living together. It can be thought of as sharing benefits, or a winwi
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fish come to allow the parasites or dead tissue to be picked off of them. The
wrasse gets its food supply, and the fish it cleans is rid of harmful pests.
Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between an algae and a fungus. The
Mimicry –
adaptations in some
species to resemble
another species,
may provide
protection from
predators or other
advantages.
Camouflage –
adaptations that
allow a species to
blend with their
surroundings; helps
to avoid detection by
predators.
Carrion –dead or
decaying flesh.
Symbiosis –
permanent, close
association between
two or more
organisms of
different species.
Mutualism –a
symbiotic
relationship in
which both species
benefit.
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fungus provides the moisture and nutrients needed by the algae, and the
algae makes the food for both.
Commensalism is a relationship in which one organism benefits and the
other organism is not helped or harmed. It is a positive relationship for one
organism and neither positive or negative for the other organism. Mosses,
ferns, and other plants called epiphytes grow attached to trees, where they
get the light they need. They get moisture and nutrients washed down the
tree. They do not take anything from the tree, so the tree is not harmed in
any way, but the tree is not helped either.
Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism benefits while the other
is harmed. The parasite gets its food from the organism in or on which it
lives. The host, the organism the parasite lives in or on, is rarely killed, but
it is harmed, often being weakened by the parasite. Fleas, ticks, and lice on
rabbits, deer, foxes, and many other animals are examples of parasites.
Some species of worms, such as roundworms, live inside many different
animals and take nutrients from them. Young animals may be killed by too
many of these worms in their system. Although adults are usually not killed
by the worms, they are weakened.
Competition
Competition is the interaction among organisms that try to use the same resources
in an ecosystem. Competition for the available resources, such as food, living
space, and sunlight, occurs between most organisms. Trees compete for sunlight
and mineral nutrients they need to grow. Red foxes and coyotes compete for the
same small mammals, such as mice and rabbits that are their main food supply.
Alien, or exotic, species often out-compete native species for available resources.
Animals have adapted, and in many cases, become specialized to use a certain
location or time of day for their hunting or food gathering to avoid excessive
competition. When animals use different layers of a habitat, such as a tree, it is
called stratification of niches, or resource partitioning. An example would be
warblers, which eat insects in trees. Each species reduces competition by spending
at least half of its time feeding in only a certain layer of the tree. Another example
would be shorebirds in a coastal wetland that have very specialized feeding niches
to minimize competition.
Commensalism –
symbiotic
relationship in
which one organism
benefits and the
other is neither
helped nor harmed.
Parasitism –
symbiotic
relationship in
which one organism
benefits and the
other is harmed.
Competition –
interaction among
organisms as they
try to use the same
natural resources.
Alien, or exotic,
species –non-native
species introduced
by humans; often
out-compete native
species.
Stratification
(resource
partitioning) –the
use of different
layers of a habitat
by different species;
a means to prevent
competition.
Stratification of
plant and animal
niches in a forest.
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Animals that compete for the same food sources also avoid some direct competition
by hunting at different times. Hawks and owls eat many of the same food sources,
such as mice, voles, and rats, but they hunt at different times of the day. The hawk
hunts during the daylight hours, while the owl hunts at night. Each is adapted to
hunting during these times.
Territoriality is another type of competition between members of the same
species. Cougars, foxes, wolves, deer, and many other species mark their territory
with urine or scent from special glands, warning others to keep out. Birds, such as
robins and blue jays, chase other birds of their species away from their territory.
Territories are established for mating, feeding, raising young, or combinations of
these activities. Territoriality helps to divide up needed resources by spacing out
the members of the species, limiting competition for those resources. The size of
the territory varies with the function, the species, and the resources available.
Territories are different from home ranges. A home range is the area roamed
through and is often not defended.
Habitat –The Key to Wildlife Survival
Every organism must have a habitat that provides what it needs to survive. A
habitat is the local environment in which the organism lives and must provide:
Food
Water
Shelter/Cover
Space
Arrangement –The four other elements must be arranged to meet
the needs of the organism.
When all of these habitat factors are in good supply and good arrangement, they
help the wildlife survive and do well. When one or more of the factors is in short
supply or the arrangement is disturbed, it limits the number of wildlife that can
survive and where they can survive.
Food –This is the amount and types of food the organism eats. Each species needs
certain kinds of food. Special terms are used for much of the wildlife food supply,
such as mast, forb, browse, and forage. Mast, fruits or nuts used as a food source
by wildlife, is divided into hard mast (nuts and acorns) and soft mast (fruits and
berries).
Water –All organisms need water. This may be surface water; as from streams,
rivers, lakes, or dew; groundwater; or moisture from plants and their food.
Shelter/Cover –Wildlife needs shelter or cover for protection. Different species
use different forms of cover. It may be grass, a bush, a tree, a burrow, or a cave.
Many species need different types of cover:
Escape Cover –is cover, such as vines, trees, crevices, or burrows that
hides, protects, or allows the wildlife to escape from predators.
Nesting Cover –is cover that protects nesting sites such as grasses, downed
logs, low shrubs, or thickets used by quail, grouse, rabbits, and
many types of songbirds.
Brood Cover –is cover, such as grasses, forbs, or low shrubs that provides
protection for ground nesters to raise their young.
Territory –The area
an animal defends
against other
members of its
species.
Home Range –The
area an animal
roams through,
often not defended.
The area supplies
the necessary
habitat
requirements.
Habitat –an
environment that
supplies everything
wildlife needs; food,
water, cover, space,
and arrangement.
Mast –fruits or nuts
used by wildlife as a
food source.
Hard Mast –fruits
or nuts of trees such
as oaks, beech,
walnut, chinquapin,
and hickories.
Soft Mast –fruits
and berries of plants
such as dogwood,
elderberry, grape,
huckleberry,
raspberry and
blackberry.
Forb –any
herbaceous (soft
stemmed) plant
other than grasses
or grass-like plants.
Browse –edible
twigs, shoots,
leaves, and buds of
woody plants; often
used to describe
category of deer
foods.
Forage –all browse
and herbaceous
plant foods that are
available to
animals.
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Roosting Cover –is cover to provide safety while resting.
Examples are coniferous trees for wild turkey, vine thickets for
quail, and holes in dead standing trees (snags) for woodpeckers and
many songbirds.
Winter Cover –is cover, such as dense thickets for deer and quail, and den
trees for bear, raccoons, and flying squirrels needed for surviving
the winter.
Space –This is the area needed for survival, and only a certain number of
organisms can live in a certain area.
Arrangement –This is how the food, cover, water, and space are located in an area;
and this determines how many organisms can live there. The best arrangement is
when the habitat factors are fairly close together with a lot of edge areas between
them.
Habitat
Fragmentation The breaking up of
habitat into smaller
areas.
Adequate habitat is essential to wildlife survival, but man is changing and
developing much of the wildlife habitat in North America. Cutting down forests,
clearing land for agriculture, draining marshes and swamps, building roads, homes
and shopping areas destroys habitat that wildlife need. One way this development
destroys the habitat is by breaking a habitat into smaller sections, making the
arrangement of ha
bi
t
a
tf
a
c
t
or
snol
ong
e
rs
ui
t
a
bl
ef
ort
hea
ni
ma
l
’
ss
ur
vi
va
l
. The
breaking up of habitat into smaller areas is called habitat fragmentation.
Carrying Capacity
Carrying capacity is the maximum number and types of wildlife a habitat can
support without the habitat being lowered in quality or destroyed. When the habitat
is good, wildlife generally has the ability to increase its numbers, but that potential
growth is usually limited by one or more limiting factors, which may be habitat
factors, such as food, water, or cover, or non-living factors. Some organisms live
in one habitat all of their life. Other organisms may move between a number of
different habitats. Examples include elk that migrate between feeding grounds
based upon the season and songbirds that migrate to breeding grounds in North
America in the spring but return to Central or South America to winter.
Carrying Capacity –
The number of
wildlife a habitat
can support.
Throughout the year the carrying capacity will change as the resources available
change. In winter, fewer plants will be growing and the food supply will be
limited. The habitat can only support a certain number of organisms without
da
ma
g
et
ot
heha
bi
t
a
torwi
l
dl
i
f
e
.Whe
na
ni
ma
l
s
’numbe
r
sbe
c
omet
ool
a
r
g
e
,t
he
y
can harm or kill the plants, destroying the food supply and cover needed. This in
turn makes the habitat no longer suitable for many organisms, decreasing the
carrying capacity of the habitat. As the carrying capacity of a habitat decreases,
the wildlife numbers will decrease. As the resources available drop, animals
become malnourished and more animals die of starvation, parasites, and disease.
The factors that keep wildlife populations from increasing to the full number they
could are shown in the following diagram. Whenever carrying capacity changes,
for whatever reason, animals will either have to move on to another habitat or their
numbers will decrease to a level the habitat can support.
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CARRYING
CAPACITY - The
number of wildlife a
habitat can support
is affected by many
limiting factors, and
it can change from
season to season
and year to year.
North Carolina Hunter Education Manual
Habitat Variations
Limiting Factor –
an environmental
factor that restricts
the growth,
distribution, or
abundance of a
particular
population; restricts
anor
g
ani
s
ms
’
ecological niche.
Some organisms will live their entire life in one tiny area or within another
or
ga
ni
s
m,s
uc
ha
sapa
r
a
s
i
t
i
cr
oun
d
wor
mi
ns
i
deaf
ox’
si
nt
e
s
t
i
neor a lichen on a
dead tree. This is its habitat for life. Other animals require different habitats for
different stages of their lives. The red spotted newt, also called the eastern newt,
requires an aquatic habitat for the beginning of its life. Being an amphibian, it
hatches from eggs that must be in the water, and water is where it develops during
its larval stages. The eastern newt then leaves the water for the first three to five
years of its life, has a totally different appearance, and uses an entirely different
habitat. During this stage of its life, it is a bright red to reddish orange color and is
called a red eft. The red eft lives among the litter on the floor of deciduous forests
where it is moist. After the three to five year period, the newt changes form and
habitat once again. It returns to the water to live out the rest of its life in an aquatic
ha
bi
t
a
t
.I
t
sf
or
ma
l
s
oc
ha
nge
st
os
ui
ti
tt
ol
i
vei
nt
hi
sne
wha
bi
t
a
t
.Thene
wt
’
st
a
i
l
becomes broader and flattened from top to bottom to aid it in swimming, and its
color changes from red to an olive or greenish brown that more closely matches its
new habitat. The newt keeps small red spots along its sides as its name, red-spotted
newt, indicates.
Other animals, such as neotropical migratory birds, like warblers and thrushes,
require different habitats long distances apart to meet their needs. Neotropical
migrants come to areas throughout North America, including North Carolina, in the
early spring to mate and raise their young. These areas provide longer hours of
daylight for the parent birds to hunt food and feed their young. Some can raise two
clutches of young in this way. As winter approaches, these birds migrate to the
tropical regions of Central and South America or the Caribbean where temperatures
are consistently warm and hours of daylight are also relatively constant.
Neotropical
Migrants – Birds
that
winter
in
Central and South
America but migrate
to North America to
breed and raise
their young.
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Still other animals require very large areas of habitat to meet all of their needs.
Bear, cougar, and elk need sufficient habitat to forage and hunt for food and to find
the various types of cover needed. Animals like these are often the ones most
affected by habitat fragmentation, which may separate needed portions of their
habitat. In the western United States, wildlife managers have found that providing
corridors, undisturbed s
t
r
i
psofl
a
nd whi
c
hc
onne
c
ts
e
c
t
i
onsoft
hea
ni
ma
l
s
’
habitat, has worked successfully. A similar corridor strategy has been successful
for the migration routes of elk, which had been fragmented by highways.
Overpasses covered with soil, grasses and even shrubs and small trees provide safe
corridors for the elk to get from one part of its range to another, and they also help
keep motorists safe. North Carolina is using a similar strategy in the eastern part of
the state for bear, deer, and other wildlife by providing large tunnels under the
roads with fencing to funnel the animals into these underpasses rather than having
them cross busy highways.
Corridors –areas of
undisturbed land or
other passageways
that allow wildlife to
get from one area of
their habitat to
another.
Generalist –
animals that can live
in many different
habitats and in close
association with
people.
Generalists
Some animals can live in almost any habitat and in close association with people
very successfully. These animals are called generalists. Raccoons are good
examples of generalists. They have even been found living in New York City, a
place not thought of as good wildlife habitat. Squirrels, mice and rats, opossums,
skunks, and coyotes are other examples of generalists. These animals are not
typically the ones that become threatened or endangered.
Specialists
Some animals require a highly specialized or specific habitat. These animals are
called specialists. Typically, the tropical rainforest comes to mind when specialists
are being discussed. However, we have a well known specialist in North Carolina.
The red-cockaded woodpecker, a resident of our eastern longleaf pine forests,
needs not just longleaf pine forests, but mature longleaf pines. This cavity nester
prefers older trees with red-heart disease, which makes the inner wood softer and
easier for the bird to dig out holes for nesting and shelter. The mature longleaf pine
forests are also fairly open, with grassy or clear areas between the trees, which
allow the woodpecker to hunt for the insects it needs. We also have other
specialists that inhabit only a few areas or require habitats with very specific
conditions. The Neuse River waterdog, a salamander, exists only in certain
sections of the Neuse River. The hellbender, another salamander, lives in a few of
our cold mountain and upper piedmont rivers, such as the New River. The little
bog turtle, the third smallest in the world, makes its home exclusively in bogs, or
fens, located in the mountain and upper piedmont regions. This unusual little reptile
is also found in a few other states.
The red-cockaded woodpecker, hellbender, and Neuse River waterdog are
endangered species. The bog turtle is a threatened species. The specialists are
most often the species that become threatened or endangered; because when their
habitats are destroyed or fragmented, they cannot just move to another area due to
their special habitat requirements.
Specialists –
organisms that
require a very
specialized or
specific habitat.
Lists of generalists and
specialists –“Wi
l
dl
i
f
e
i
nNor
t
hCar
o
l
i
na”
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Important Habitat Areas
Ecotones –Edge Effect
As a community becomes more complex, the types of vegetation increase and a
larger variety of species are able to live in the environment. A deciduous forest,
being more complex than a meadow, offers animals greater diversity of food and
types of cover. The variety of species found in a habitat is related to the number of
possible niches available. A larger number of different species will be found in the
deciduous forest than in the meadow. Species diversity, also called biodiversity,
(the number of different types of organisms in an area) will also be greater at the
margins of two communities than at the center of either community. Generally, the
more isolated a community is or the more environmental stress there is on a
community, such as harsh conditions or development by humans, the lower the
diversity or variety of species.
The area between two different types of habitats, such as between a forest and a
field, will have vegetation from both habitats as well as vegetation, such as shrubs,
not found in either. These transitional zones, where two or more communities meet
and combine, are called ecotones or edges. They contain all, or most all, of the
niches of the joining communities, plus others found only in the ecotone. Ecotones
are often rich in species because of the large variety of niches and the fact that they
hold species from the joining communities as well as their predators. Ecotones exist
anywhere communities come together, such as a pine forest meeting a deciduous
forest, a pasture meeting a forest, and along all types of wetlands including streams,
ponds, lakes, swamps, and rivers. In an ecotone, habitat requirements are close
t
og
e
t
he
r
,t
hebe
s
ta
r
r
a
nge
me
ntf
ora
na
ni
ma
l
’
ss
ur
vi
va
l
.De
e
rc
a
nbr
ows
e(
e
a
t
)t
he
shrubs and grasses, but have their escape and resting cover close by in the forest.
Rabbits and quail can feed on the grasses and seeds and have their escape cover
nearby in the shrubs, vines, and thickets.
Biodiversity – the
variety of species in
an ecosystem
Ecotone –transition
zones where two or
more habitats meet
and combine
providing a greater
variety of foods and
niches and habitat
to a greater variety
of species.
Edge Effect –
animals from each
community; a
greater number of
each species and a
greater variety of
species found at
edges or ecotones.
Some species
require large
expanses of the
same type of
habitat. These
animals are called
interior species,
and they do not
benefit from
edges.
The change in variety of species and the number of each species in these transition
areas is known as the edge effect.
The Edge Effect
among the different
habitat elements:
food, water, shelter,
space, and
arrangement.
(North Carolina
Hunter Safety Manual)
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Wetlands
Many wetlands have large areas of edge effect and some are almost all edge, the
habitat where species from land and water combine. There are many animals that
are not totally aquatic organisms. These animals are dependant on wetland areas for
all or part of their life cycle or lifestyle. Mink, beaver, and muskrats are mammals
that live in close association with wetland areas. Beavers and muskrats build their
homes in or near the water and eat vegetation that grows near the water. Mink feed
on muskrats and aquatic organisms such as fish and frogs, as well as mice, rabbits,
and birds that hide in the cover of the wetland edge. The shoreline grasses, brush,
and trees, and aquatic vegetation provide good cover for the mink as well as
abundant prey. The mink also finds its nesting and rest cover here in abandoned
muskrat burrows, brush, or rock piles. Many animals are dependant on these areas
for at least a portion of their food and for their water supply. These ecotone,
wetland areas provide all of the habitat needs for numerous organisms, and in our
highly developed Piedmont cities, they may be the only remaining habitat for many
organisms. Many insects, such as dragonflies, mayflies, caddisflies, and stoneflies,
and amphibians, such as frogs, toads, and salamanders spend the egg and larval or
nymph stages of their lives in these wetlands.
Riparian areas, or the greenway of natural vegetation along streams and rivers, are
important areas for wildlife. They provide access to water along with cover and
many food sources. These special ecotones offer natural corridors through
developed areas for many species. Riparian areas act as filters to help prevent
water pollution. Trees, brush, and other vegetation along the streams and rivers
he
l
pc
a
t
c
hs
e
di
me
nta
ndc
he
mi
c
a
l
si
nr
unof
f
,t
huspr
e
s
e
r
vi
ngt
hes
t
r
e
a
m’
swi
l
dl
i
f
efish, mussels, insect larvae and other invertebrates –a vital food supply for other
animals. They shade the water keeping it cooler and allowing the water to hold
more dissolved oxygen. They also increase the humidity, important for amphibians.
Fallen leaves provide detritus an important food source for aquatic invertebrates.
Riparian Area –
The“gr
e
e
nway
s
”of
vegetation along
streams and rivers.
Grassy fields and meadows
These open areas allow in sunlight needed for numerous grasses, wildflowers,
weeds, legumes, shrubs, vines, and saplings to grow. Fields are like wetlands in
that they attract many different species and are visited by animals that do not live
there throughout the year. These animals may visit the field only at certain times of
the day or during times when food supplies in other habitats are limited. The
amount of sunlight fields receive makes them one of the first areas where the snow
melts, revealing the grasses beneath. They may also green-up long before other
types of food supplies are available in the spring. Both of these factors make fields
important to wildlife, by providing food when it is unavailable other places.
The grasses are habitat to numerous rodents (mice, voles, and cotton rats), which
find an abundant supply of seeds, cover for escape, nesting, and resting areas.
There are also little runways through the grass or burrows under the dead grass
throughout the field. Moles burrow beneath the surface through the maze of roots
on which they feed. In turn, the rodents provide a food source for and attract many
predators to the fields. These include: hawks, owls, kestrels, red foxes, gray foxes,
bobcats, and snakes. Many insects are attracted to the grasses, wildflowers, and
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flowering vines in fields to eat the vegetation or for the pollen or nectar from the
flowers. The presence of insects and grasses entice many species of seed-eating
and insectivorous birds including quail, killdeer, grouse, sparrows, flickers,
bluebirds, wrens, meadowlarks, and wild turkey. At night, bats visit the fields to
feed upon the numerous insects. Rabbits and groundhogs also find their needed
food supply and nesting, escape, and resting cover here or nearby. Shrews, lizards,
and skunks are attracted by abundant insects and grubs. Raccoons and opossums
are common visitors, as are white tailed deer that forage here.
Grassy fields are temporary habitats. Over time more and more shrubs will grow
and pine and cedar trees begin to appear. These plants will eventually shade out the
grasses and wildflowers as a pine forest develops. Over a much longer period of
time, deciduous trees such as oaks, hickories, poplars, and wild cherries will begin
to grow among the pines. Eventually, the deciduous trees shade the pines, which
begin to die. Finally an oak-hickory forest will replace the pine forest. This
change in species of plants that populate an area over time is called succession, or
more specifically plant succession. Along with plant succession comes a
succession of animal species suited to the new habitats created.
Succession –the
regular pattern of
change over time of
the types of species
in a community.
Snag –a standing
dead or dying tree.
Downed log –a
fallen tree or snag
lying on or near the
forest floor.
Forest clearings
Forest clearings provide field type ecosystems which benefit many species, as
discussed above. These clearings may be created naturally by the death and falling
of old trees, allowing sunlight to reach the forest floor, or by wildfires that open up
the forest floor to sunlight. Some clearings are man-made, the result of selectively
cutting stands of trees or by clear-cutting sections of a forest. These important
wildlife areas are also temporary, as they will go through succession just as the
grassy field does.
Snags and Downed Logs
Snags and downed logs are important for wildlife because they provide areas for
nesting, roosting (resting), foraging (eating), perching, denning, escape cover, or
territorial displays. A snag is a standing dead or dying tree. A downed log is a
fallen tree or snag that is lying on or near the forest floor. Snags, downed logs, and
woody debris from them are natural occurrences in a mature forest (one over 60
years old). The trees may have been killed by lightening, storm damage, fire,
diseases, insects, or other factors. Black bears often den in large snags.
Salamanders will live and feed beneath the moist, decaying log and some species,
such as the spotted salamander, will lay its eggs in a jelly-like mass in this moist
area. Cavity nesters are very dependent on snags. Woodpeckers, warblers,
chickadees, bluebirds, wood ducks, owls, flying squirrels, and even some lizards
use cavities as their homes. Some bat species rest and even winter under the bark
of snag trees. The dead and decaying wood provides food and homes for many
species of insects, which in turn provide the food for insect eating birds, and other
animals that may also help control forest pests.
N.C. Cooperative
Extension Service
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N.C. Cooperative Extension Service
The broadest divisions of habitats are aquatic (water) and terrestrial (land), but
there are two lesser habitats: aerial and subterranean. Subterranean habitats
include soil and surface litter, caves, and underground cavities.
Cave dwelling organisms include some species of salamanders, fish, snails, worms,
insects, spiders and crustaceans. Many species of bats use caves for roosting and
wintering. Bat guano (waste) is a major source of food for other cave dwellers.
Caves are cool, with very little daily change in temperature. Since there are really
no seasons in caves, animals can breed throughout the year. True cave animals
react negatively to light. Most are colorless, white, or lighter than surface dwelling
relatives. Cave dwellers have no eyes or small eyes, but other sense organs and
tactile hairs or antennae are well developed.
Aerial habitats are considered only temporary habitats for most organisms that use
them. Bats are the only mammals that can really fly. Most bats are nocturnal. All
ofNor
t
hCa
r
ol
i
na
’
sba
ts
pe
c
i
e
sa
r
einsectivores (insect eaters), and collect their
f
oodwh
i
l
ei
nf
l
i
g
ht
.Somebi
r
dss
t
a
y“
ont
hewi
ng
,
”ori
nf
l
i
g
htmos
toft
he
i
rl
i
ve
s
.
They only come down to the surface to nest and raise their young. Examples of
these birds include the albatross, petrels, and other seabirds. A few species of
insects travel long distances by air, such as the monarch butterfly and painted lady
butterfly, which mi
gr
a
t
e
. Somepl
a
nt
sc
a
l
l
e
de
pi
phy
t
e
sor“
a
i
rpl
a
nt
s
”g
r
ow
without contact with the soil. They grow on trees, roofs, or other surfaces.
Bromeliads, some mosses, and orchids are epiphytes.
Creating and Preserving Habitat
There are many techniques being used to help protect and preserve habitats and to
create new ones. Information on some of these practices, many of which create or
maintain edges, follows.
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Buffer Strips – strips of permanent vegetation in or around edges of fields,
particularly near streams or rivers. There are many different types of buffers
including:
▫Fi
l
t
e
rSt
r
i
ps–grass or other vegetation to trap sediment
and pollutants before they reach waterways.
▫She
l
t
e
r
be
l
t
s
/
Fi
e
l
dWi
n
dbr
eaks
▫Gr
a
s
s
e
dWa
t
e
r
wa
y
s
▫Li
vi
ngSn
o
wFe
nc
e
s–shrubs and trees to prevent wind
and snow damage and to trap the snow for water.
▫Cont
ourGr
a
s
sSt
r
i
ps
▫Cr
os
s
-Wind Trap Strips –rows of vegetation.
▫Sha
l
l
owWa
t
e
rAr
e
a
sForWi
l
dlife –areas of shallow water
in or near crop fields, protected by permanent vegetation.
▫Fi
e
l
dBor
de
r
s–grassed areas along the edges of crop
fields.
▫Al
l
e
yCr
o
p
pi
ng–crops planted between rows of shrubs
or trees.
St
r
e
a
ms
i
deMa
na
g
e
me
ntZone
s
,orSMZ’
s–buffer strips of vegetation along
streams or around other water bodies like lakes and reservoirs, where forestry
practices require special care to protect water quality.
Riparian Areas –areas of vegetation along streams and rivers. These areas help
remove pollutants before they enter the water body and provide corridors,
cover, and food for wildlife.
Riparian
Buffer
N.C. Forest Service
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Food Plots or Wildlife Openings –cleared area of forest that are mowed or
disked and planted with grasses and grains or contain native plants to meet
food and cover needs of wildlife.
Maintaining Edges –creating and maintaining edges can be done through
many practices:
▪whe
nha
r
ve
s
t
i
ngt
r
e
e
s
,ma
kei
r
r
e
g
ul
a
rs
ha
pe
dc
ut
sori
nde
nt
a
t
i
ons
to increase the amount of edge.
▪Al
l
owna
t
i
veve
ge
t
a
t
i
ont
og
r
owa
l
ongf
e
nc
e
r
ows
,t
e
r
r
a
c
e
s
,
roadsides, gullies, or field borders.
▪Al
l
owf
i
ng
e
r
sofna
t
i
veve
getation to creep out into pastures,
fields, and other open areas.
▪Pl
a
ntve
g
e
t
a
t
i
ono
rhe
dg
e
r
owst
oc
onne
c
tl
a
r
g
ef
or
e
s
t
e
da
r
e
a
st
o
serve as cover and travel lanes or corridors for wildlife.
▪Cr
e
a
t
ebr
us
hpi
l
e
si
npa
s
t
ur
e
s
,c
l
e
a
r
c
ut
s
,orother open areas for
cover.
▪Cutlarge trees and leave them on field edges to provide cover.
▪Pl
a
ntt
r
e
e
sors
hr
u
b
st
os
pe
e
dupt
hede
ve
l
opme
ntofc
ove
ra
l
ong
edges.
▪Cutf
i
r
e
wooda
nddot
i
mbe
rs
t
a
ndi
mpr
ove
me
nts in a way that will
increase forest edge or forest openings.
▪Pr
e
s
c
r
i
be
dbur
nst
oop
e
nupt
hef
or
e
s
ta
nda
l
l
ow unde
r
g
r
owt
ha
nd
grasses sunlight.
▪Se
l
e
c
t
i
vec
ut
t
i
ngoft
r
e
e
sorpl
a
nt
i
ngofva
r
i
ouss
pe
c
i
e
s
.
▪Mowt
oma
i
nt
a
i
ng
r
assy fields and various stages of succession.
▪I
ndi
vi
dua
lhome
owne
r
sa
ndur
ba
na
r
e
a
sc
a
nl
a
nds
c
a
pewi
t
hs
hr
ubs
and trees of various heights to provide vertical vegetation to
increase wildlife habitat.
▪Home
owne
r
scan landscape with native plants to provide food,
water and cover for wildlife.
Landowners can increase the numbers of wildlife and different species on their land
by following any of the methods for creating edge described above. Some of the
methods are shown in the pictures below.
Homeowners in
urban areas can
landscape to
provide vertical
stratification or
layering of
vegetation to
provide wildlife
food and cover.
N.C. Cooperative
Extension Service
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Much progress has been made toward improving wildlife habitat. Rather than clear
cutting, forestry practices today include: selective cutting, multiage stands, and
seed tree cuts. It is also currently common practice to reforest or replant pine or
conifer forests that are clear cut. These practices are important for wildlife. The
Department of Agriculture offers many programs encouraging farmers to conserve
soil and water resources for the benefit of wildlife. These programs include the
Conservation Reserve Program, Conservation Reserve Environmental Program,
Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program, Wetlands Reserve Program, and Forest
Stewardship Program. All of these programs help create edges and ecosystems
where more habitat requirements for a larger variety of species are met.
Everyone can play a role. The individual homeowner can landscape with native
plants, shrubs, and trees of varying sizes to meet habitat needs for many species.
Old Christmas trees, brush, cut shrubs, or tree limbs can be used to provide
important wildlife habitat. These materials placed in a stand of trees, along the
edge of trees, or in a pile in an open area can provide important escape, resting,
feeding, and nesting cover for birds and small mammals. They can also serve as
important cover from winter snows or harsh weather for these animals. As they
decay they attract insects adding to the wildlife food supply. The same materials
sunk into lakes or ponds serve as important cover for various fish. These options
are much more environmentally friendly uses of discarded trees and brush than
burning them, which adds carbon dioxide and other pollutants to the atmosphere.
Succession and Wildlife
Habitats will naturally change over time from one type of vegetation to another.
This is known as succession, or biotic change. An abandoned field that is no
longer farmed will first grow up in weeds and grasses. Over time, weeds and then
shrubs will start growing along with the grasses. In time, small conifer trees –
pines and cedars, will begin growing. The conifers eventually shade out the lower
plants and a pine forest emerges. Small hardwood trees (deciduous trees) begin
growing among the pines, and in time, a mixed forest develops. Eventually the
deciduous trees will shade out young pines, killing them or making them weak and
prone to diseases or insects. Finally, a hardwood, oak-hickory forest habitat is
established after the adult pines die off.
The following is a description of succession common for much of North Carolina.
The first plants to begin growing are called the pioneer species, which are the
weeds and grasses. The final community of natural vegetation that does not change
unless disturbed is called the climax community. This vegetation would be the
oak-hickory forest.
At each stage of succession, there are various habitats that meet the needs of
different species of wildlife. Those with the greatest variety of vegetation will meet
the needs of a greater variety of species, but many species also need forest interior
(either pine forest or deciduous forest). Without old field succession, habitat for
some species may be limited.
Succession or Biotic
Change –The
regular pattern of
changes over time in
the types of species
present.
Primary Succession
occurs on new land
that has no
developed soil, such
as a volcanic island.
Secondary
Succession occurs
on areas that have
once been covered
with vegetation but
have been disturbed,
such as a cleared
forest.
Pioneer species –
the first species that
begins to grow in an
abandoned, bare
area.
Climax community
–the final
community that
develops, a diverse
community that does
not undergo further
succession
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The grassy field and its importance have already been discussed. The pine forest
provides for the habitat needs of many of the grassy field visitors, such as resting
and escape cover for deer and foxes. The pine forest also attracts other species
some of which are adapted specifically to the pine forest, such as the fox squirrel
and red-cockaded woodpecker.
The deciduous forest provides a wide variety of foods and types of cover for other
species. Raccoons, gray squirrels, red squirrels, flying squirrels, bear, opossums,
deer, foxes, hawks, owls, songbirds as well as many other animals have habitat
needs met by these communities.
Secondary
Succession
of an old field
Ponds and lakes, over a much longer period of time, will also go through
succession. As sediment is carried into the pond, the bottom begins to fill in, and
the water becomes more shallow. The pond then can become a marsh, wet
meadow, grassland, and finally a forest.
As with the succession of a bare field, each habitat created in each of the steps of
the pond succession provides for the needs of different species of plants and
animals. Eventually it will no longer contain enough water to provide acceptable
habitat for fish, water dwelling salamanders, aquatic turtles, or aquatic insects; but
as it becomes unacceptable habitat for those species, it begins to provide habitat for
others. Species that need meadows, and later, those that need forest will have their
habitat needs met.
Fire-maintained Ecosystems
Some habitats have been naturally maintained or kept in a certain stage of
succession, such as the longleaf pine forests of eastern North Carolina. These
communities have been historically maintained by fire, usually from the natural
source –lightning. These ecosystems have adapted to survive these periodic fires,
which keep the community in its current stage –a pine forest. The fire-induced
stabilization of the coniferous forest has kept in place a habitat for many species
adapted to live in this specific type of habitat. Examples include the longleaf pine
itself, whose seeds will not germinate unless on a bare forest floor, and the pond
pine, whose cones will not open to release the seeds unless they are heated by a
fire.
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Thel
ong
l
e
a
fpi
ne
’
sg
r
owt
hpa
t
t
e
r
nha
sa
da
pt
e
dt
os
ur
vi
vet
hef
i
r
e
s
.Asaseedling it
spends 5 –7y
e
a
r
si
na“
g
r
a
s
spha
s
e
”whe
r
eonl
yade
ns
ec
l
umpofne
e
dl
e
ss
hows
above ground. When fire passes through, the needles close around the growing tip
in the center and protect it. The tree is building an extensive root system during
this period. The longleaf pine then springs up to a height of 3 to 5 feet in one
growing season. If a fire passes through at this point, the growing tip should be
above the hottest part of the fire and protected. The tree develops very thick bark,
which protects the growing layer of the tree beneath from the fire. The redcockaded woodpecker that needs mature (old) longleaf pine trees would not be as
abundant if these areas went on through succession to a hardwood forest. The fox
squirrel, larger than the gray squirrel, is large enough to handle and carry the big
longleaf pine cones. The seeds are one of its main food sources. The fox squirrel
also has a black color phase, when it has a dark coloration enabling it to blend well
with the charred trunks of the trees and hide from predators.
Wildlife and forest managers have realized that controlling all fires has not really
been good for many of our forests or our wildlife. Today both of these groups use
prescribed burns, also called controlled burns, to help keep these forests healthy
and provide a good variety of wildlife habitats. Prescribed burns will be discussed
more in the wildlife management section of this manual.
Prescribed burn –
the controlled use of
fire to clear litter or
undergrowth from a
forest or to maintain
an ecosystem, such
as a longleaf pine
forest or a pocosin.
What Is Wildlife?
Thet
e
r
m“
wi
l
dl
i
f
e
”i
nc
l
ude
sa
l
lf
r
e
e
,undome
s
t
i
c
a
t
e
ds
pe
c
i
es of living organisms
that interact with the non-living factors in an ecosystem. However, sometimes the
term is used for only undomesticated species of animals.
Plants, algae (classified as protists, or one-celled organisms with a nucleus), and
cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae) are producers. They make up the
base of the food chain in land and water environments.
Wildlife –all nondomesticated
species of plants,
animals, and other
living organism; the
term is sometimes
used for only
undomesticated
animals.
Fungi and bacteria, the important decomposers, live off dead organic matter or
waste products and return mineral nutrients to the soil to be used again by the
plants and recycled through the food chain.
Animals are divided into the two large groups of invertebrates and vertebrates.
Invertebrates are the simpler animals and have no backbones. These animals either
have no skeleton or an exoskeleton (a hard outer covering like that on a crayfish).
Invertebrates include:
 Sponges
 Stinging Celled Animals: jellyfish, anemones, and corals
 Mollusks –soft bodied animals like snails, clams, mussels, oysters,
and scallops
 Nematodes –roundworms
 Flatworms –flukes, planaria, and tapeworms
 Segmented Worms –earthworms and leeches
 Spiny Skinned Animals –sea stars, sea urchins, and sand dollars
 Arthropods –jointed foot animals such as insects, spiders, millipedes,
centipedes, crabs, and lobsters
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The vertebrate animals are those with backbones, and they are the animals most
people think of as wildlife. They all have internal skeletons.
Vertebrates include:
Fish
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
Insects
Insects are the most numerous animals on earth. They make up about 85% of the
population. Insects are arthropods, which means they have jointed legs or feet.
They, like all other arthropods, go through metamorphosis changing from egg,
into larva, into nymph (or pupa), and finally into adult form. Insects, like other
arthropods, have exoskeletons, which they must shed in order to grow. The
exoskeletons, essentially an outside or external skeleton, are made of chitin. Insects
are different from other arthropods in that they have three pairs (6) legs.
He
a
r
i
ngt
hewor
d“
i
ns
e
c
t
,
”ma
nyp
e
opl
ei
mme
di
a
t
e
l
yt
hi
nkofs
pe
c
i
e
st
ha
tc
a
us
e
harm to humans, crops, homes, animals or products. We call these insect pests.
Examples of these insect pests include: corn borers, termites, mosquitoes, fleas,
flies, horn worms, weevils, aphids, beetles, crickets, and ants.
Man has had an ongoing battle with insect pests for centuries. Throughout history
various methodsha
vebe
e
nus
e
dt
o“
c
ont
r
ol
”t
he
m.He
a
vyme
t
a
l
s
,s
uc
ha
sa
r
s
e
ni
c
,
were once used to poison them, much as our synthetic pesticides are designed to do
today.
Natural controls, which include climate, natural enemies (such as spiders and
predatory insects which help control the numbers of pests), geographic or natural
barriers (such as mountains or large bodies of water), availability of shelter, and the
food and water supply, may sometimes be used to help control insect populations.
These controls are often not enough to prevent damage or injury by insects, and
man must use other methods to help control pest insects. One of these methods is
host resistance. Some animals and plants resist pests better than others. The use of
these species for crops and dome
s
t
i
ca
ni
ma
l
she
l
psr
e
duc
epe
s
t
s
’numbe
r
s
.Some
plants seem to repel unwanted insects. Planting these species with or around crops
can help reduce insect numbers. Chemical pesticides have been widely used in the
past. We have learned that the heavy use of chemical pesticides often does not
work effectively. The pesticides also kill beneficial organisms. Pest insects may
also become resistant to the pesticide making it less effective or not effective. Use
of heavier applications and use of stronger versions of the chemicals may be
required to control the pests. Some of these chemicals were also found to be
polluting surface waters and killing birds and other animals.
Metamorphosis –A
change in form from
one developmental
stage to another, as
from larva to adult
form.
Nor
t
hCar
ol
i
na’
s
state Insect is the
honeybee.
A new approach, integrated pest management (IPM), is being used to control the
insect pests without doing as much harm to the environment. This form of pest
management uses a combination of methods to fight specific insect pests.
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The following are some examples of integrated pest management:
- Biological controls
- use of predators, such as bats, spiders, and other insects to control
insect pests
- altering pests species, such as sterilizing males and releasing them
ori
nt
e
r
f
e
r
i
ngwi
t
hp
e
s
ti
ns
e
c
t
s
’r
e
pr
oduc
t
i
vec
y
c
l
e
st
hr
oug
ht
heus
e
of hormones or pheromones
- Non-toxic (non-poisonous) substances
- lime put on infected plants
- Chemical insecticides
- Agricultural methods
- planting multiple crops in a large field instead of just one crop
- rotating crops
- varying the time of planting or harvesting
- planting trap crops or adjusting row width
- Mechanical (physical) controls
- traps, screens, barriers, fences, nets, radiation, and electricity can
be used to help prevent the spread of pests
* Scouting of insect populations is done to determine the best methods to use.
Insects are as important to man as they are pests to him. The insects that help man
are called beneficial insects. Insects are our most important crop pollinators.
Tomatoes, beans, corn, fruits, and melons depend upon them. Honeybees are
perhaps the most widely recognized pollinators. In addition, they provide honey
and wax –products widely used by man. Moths and butterflies are also common
pollinators. Pollinating insects and other helpful species are often harmed when
c
he
mi
c
a
li
ns
e
c
t
i
c
i
de
sa
r
e us
e
df
or“
i
ns
e
c
tpe
s
t
s
.
” Pr
e
da
t
or
yi
ns
e
c
t
sa
r
ea
l
s
o
beneficial to man and are used to help limit pest populations. Examples of
predatory insects include the following: the tachinid fly lays its eggs on the
armyworm. The braconid wasp lays eggs on aphids and other pest insects. Rove
beetles feed on the maggots of flies. Lady beetles feed on aphids and scales.
Many animals, such as birds, toads, frogs, lizards, shrews, moles, and bats depend
on insects for food. Some birds eat their own weight in insects every day, and
amphibians actually consume more insects than birds. A bat can consume up to
600 mosquitoes each night. Insects are an extremely important part of the food
supply for many species.
Keystone Species and Indicator Species
Some species, such as the beaver and alligator, actually create habitat for other
animals. These are known as keystone species.
Other species, such as
amphibians, songbirds, fish-eating raptors, and mink, have warned us of
environmental problems. These animals are called indicator species.
Game and Non-game Species
Wildlife is divided into game and non-game species. Game species are those that
may be hunted or trapped according to the wildlife regulations for seasons and
limits. Some examples of game species are trout, ducks, quail, deer, bear, and gray
squirrels. Non-game species are wildlife that are not hunted. Examples are
songbirds, raptors, snakes, and most amphibians.
Integrated Pest
Management - the
use of several pest
control methods
combined into a
plan to reduce pests
and their damage to
an acceptable level
Keystone Species –
a species that is
crucial to the nature
of a community or
ecosystem where it
lives; other species
depend on or are
greatly affected by
keystone species;
may be a top
predator, plant that
shelters or feeds, or
other organism that
plays a critical
ecological role.
Beaver Ponds –
Beavers create a
different ecosystem
when they construct
a dam and a pond
develops. This new
environment
provides habitat for
the beaver and
numerous other
species.
Indicator Species –
a species that
indicates particular
conditions. For
example, a large
population of fly
larvae in polluted
water.
Game Species –
Animals that may be
hunted or trapped
according to wildlife
regulations.
Non-game Species Animals that are not
hunted.
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Hunters and Wildlife Conservation
Hunters have been important to the conservation of wildlife. U.S. sportsmen asked
for and helped vote in laws to help protect wildlife from over-harvesting and to
insure there were sufficient numbers for the future. The Pittman-Robertson Act of
1937 provided funds for wildlife study, restoration, and education. The DingellJohnson Act of 1951 provided funds for fish management. Hunting licenses
provide the majority of state funds for fish and game management. Duck stamps
(for hunting ducks) provide funds for management of wetlands for waterfowl and
other wildlife.
N.C. Hunter Education Manual
Fish
Fish are vertebrate animals usually characterized by fins, scales, breathing with
gills and living in water. Fish eggs must be in water, because they have no
protective shell to prevent moisture loss. Fish and their eggs are important food
sources for many animals including birds such as the kingfisher and osprey,
mammals such as mink and raccoons, reptiles including aquatic turtles and
alligators, and other fish.
Fish are divided into fresh water and marine or saltwater species, depending upon
their habitat. Because of their water habitat, fish are at risk from various forms of
pollution that enter surface waters. Agriculture, development, and clear cutting of
forests can leave soil exposed. When the soil is eroded, large amounts of sediment
can enter the water causing many problems for fish. Sedimentation is North
Ca
r
ol
i
na
’
st
oppol
l
ut
i
onpr
obl
e
m.Thes
e
di
me
nt
sc
a
nc
ove
rt
hef
i
s
h’
se
ggski
l
l
i
ng
the developing young and can also clog the gills of the fish limiting their ability to
“
br
e
a
t
he
”org
e
toxy
ge
nf
r
om t
hewa
t
e
r
.Che
mi
c
a
lpol
l
ut
a
nt
si
nc
l
udi
nghe
r
bi
c
i
de
s
,
pesticides, and industrial chemicals such as arsenic and mercury can kill fish or
accumulate in their bodies and then be passed up the food chain through the
predators. Nutrient pollution can also be a problem. The introduction of excess
nut
r
i
e
nt
se
i
t
he
rna
t
ur
a
l
l
yorbyma
n’
sa
ctions can cause eutrophication, which can
cause fish kills. (See Aquatics section of this manual for more information.)
Vertebrate –an
animal with a
backbone.
Nor
t
hCar
ol
i
na’
s
state saltwater fish
is the channel bass.
Anglers –sport
fishermen.
There are game and non-game species of fish. Game fish are those that may be
caught following the regulations and limits set. Fishing is a popular sport. Anglers
in North Carolina may fish for mountain stream trout; bass, bream, crappie and
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perch of lakes and ponds; flounder, spot and bluefish of the coast; and snapper and
grouper of the open sea, among others.
(See aquatics
section for
anatomy of fish.)
Amphibians
Amphibians, which include frogs, toads, and salamanders (newts, mudpuppies,
sirens, waterdogs, hellbender, and amphiuma), are vertebrate animals. Most are
characterized by smooth, moist skin, lacking scales, four legs, toes with no claws,
exothermic or“
c
ol
d-bl
oode
d,
”a
ndadoubl
el
i
f
e
s
t
y
l
e–part in water and part on
land. The word amphibiousc
ome
sf
r
om t
heGr
e
e
kf
or“
l
i
vi
ngadoubl
el
i
f
e
.
”
Amphibian eggs must be in water or very moist areas, because they have no
protective covering to keep them from drying out. Most amphibians have an
aquatic larval stage and almost all amphibians live in moist areas or in the water.
Amphi
bi
a
nsc
a
n“
br
e
a
t
he
”ort
a
kei
noxy
ge
nt
hr
oug
ht
he
i
rmoi
s
ts
ki
n. Thi
s
adaptation is used when they hibernate in the mud at the bottom of ponds or in the
soil. Amphibians eat insects and are prey for many organisms.
Because of their partial aquatic lifestyle, amphibians can be at risk from water
pollution. Some scientists believe the loss of amphibian species and deformities
found in some amphibians are indicators of environmental problems. Reasons for
their decline in many areas may be from a variety of causes including habitat
fragmentation, introduction of exotic predatory fish, pollution (of the air, soil, and
water), ultraviolet radiation, over hunting, and drought and dehydration.
Amphibians eat
more insects than
do birds.
Amphibians and
their larvae are a
food source for
reptiles, birds,
aquatic insects, fish,
mammals, and
other amphibians.
Exothermic –
having a body
temperature derived
f
r
omt
heani
mal
’
s
e
nv
i
r
onme
nt
,
“c
ol
dbl
o
ode
d
.
”
Herpetology: The
scientific study of
amphibians and
reptiles.
Amphibians are not game species but some frogs are hunted for their legs, an
a
c
t
i
vi
t
yc
a
l
l
e
d“
f
r
ogg
i
gg
i
ng
.
” Thebul
l
f
r
ogi
st
hes
pe
c
i
e
sus
ua
l
l
ys
oug
htbe
c
a
us
e
of its large hind legs. Other species, particularly the leopard frog, are taken for use
as dissection specimens.
Nor
t
hCar
ol
i
na’
s
state reptile is the
eastern box turtle.
Reptiles
Reptiles are vertebrate animals with dry, glandless, horny scaled skin, which are
exothermic and thus dependent on their environment for maintaining their body
temperature. Snakes and a few lizards are legless, but most reptiles have four limbs
each with five clawed toes. Most reptiles live on land. Reptiles differ from fish and
amphibians in that they have no gills, no free-living larval stage, and breathe only
byme
a
nsofl
ung
s
.Ther
e
pt
i
l
e
’
ss
c
a
l
ys
ki
nhe
l
pske
e
pi
tf
r
om l
os
i
ngwa
t
e
r
.Al
l
reptiles use internal fertilization. Reptiles lay eggs that are covered by a soft,
l
e
a
t
he
r
ys
he
l
l
.Thet
hi
c
k,l
e
a
t
he
r
yc
oa
t
i
ngoft
her
e
pt
i
l
e
’
se
ggwa
st
hea
da
pt
a
t
i
on
that allowed the reptiles to live their entire lives on land, without returning to the
water to reproduce.
27
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These adaptations have allowed reptiles to expand their range into all types of
environments, including the harsh, dry conditions of the desert.
Re
pt
i
l
e
si
nc
l
udel
i
z
a
r
ds
,s
na
ke
s
,t
ur
t
l
e
s
,a
nda
l
l
i
g
a
t
or
s
. Nor
t
hCa
r
ol
i
na
’
sr
e
pt
i
l
e
s
range in size from the tiny bog turtle to the American alligator. The
American alligator was once on the endangered species list, but the population has
recovered, and the alligator is now listed as threatened. The bog turtle, the third
smallest turtle in the world, is listed as a threatened species.
While most reptiles lay eggs, some snakes and a few lizards are ovoviviparous.
They carry their eggs inside their bodies until the eggs hatch and have their young
alive. Reptile eggs are large compared to those of fish and amphibians. The eggs
have a protective shell and large yolk unlike the eggs of fish and amphibians.
Re
pt
i
l
e
’
se
gg
sa
r
ede
s
i
gne
df
orde
ve
l
opme
ntonl
a
nd.Ther
e
pt
i
l
e
’
se
g
gy
ol
ks
a
c
allows the embryo to use nutrients stored in the egg. The eggs have three other
membranes. The amnion surrounds the embryo and secretes a fluid that supports
and protects the embryo. The allantois is a respiratory surface and stores metabolic
wastes. The serosa encloses the embryo and other membranes.
North Carolina has 37 species of snakes. Nineteen of these species are egg-layers,
a
nd18a
r
el
i
ve
be
a
r
e
r
s
.Mos
tofNor
t
hCa
r
ol
i
na
’
ss
na
ke
sa
r
enon-poisonous or nonvenomous. The poisonous snakes of North Carolina include: copperhead, water
moccasin (also called a cottonmouth), timber rattlesnake (called a canebrake
rattlesnake in the eastern region of the state), pygmy rattlesnake, diamondback
rattlesnake, and the coral snake.
Reptiles are mostly non-game species. Historically, alligators were hunted for their
meat and for their hides, which were used to make purses, shoes, and wallets.
When the species became endangered, all hunting became illegal. The hunting of
alligators is now allowed in some states by special permits. Alligators are also
raised on farms to supply meat to specialty stores and restaurants. Some turtles are
also taken for food. These include the river cooter, snapping turtle, and
historically, sea turtles. In some states, rattlesnakes are also hunted for their meat.
Some snakes, turtles and lizards are popular pets, and some are collected from the
wild by professionals for breeding purposes and venom collection. A person who
specializes in the study of amphibians and reptiles is a herpetologist.
Herpetologist –A
person who studies
amphibians and
reptiles.
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Birds
Birds are vertebrate animals characterized by feathers; hard-shelled eggs; bills with
no teeth; the ability to maintain body warmth and, in most birds, the ability to fly.
Birds are endothermic or“
wa
r
m bl
oode
d.
” The
yproduce their own body heat.
This ability to maintain their body temperature is shared with the mammals. Birds
have a high metabolic rate to produce the needed body heat. Birds also fluff up
their feathers to trap air, which helps insulate them and keep them warm.
The ability of flight requires light weight, which comes from specialized skeletal
structural adaptations. Birds have hollow bones, and some of the larger bones have
internal struts for reinforcement. Flight also requires a rigid ai
rf
r
a
me
.Thebi
r
ds
’
rib case and backbone are rigid with some of the bones fused. Only the tail and
long neck remain flexible. The breast bone of birds is large and has a keel for the
attachment of the enormous flight muscles, which may be 15 to 25 percent of the
bi
r
d’
swe
i
g
ht
.I
ns
omehummi
ng
bi
r
ds
,t
he
s
emus
c
l
e
sma
ybeupt
o30pe
r
c
e
ntof
t
hea
ni
ma
l
’
swe
i
g
ht
.
Birds also have a system of air sacs, in addition to their lungs, which add to the
lightness required for flight. By holding air in reserve, these air sacs allow the
birds to use the air they breathe more efficiently than mammals, which have
relatively larger lungs. The air sacs also help birds control their temperature. They
have no cooling sweat glands.
Another requirement for flight is excellent eyesight. Birds have the best visual
acuity of all living things. The eye of a bird is extremely large. The eye of an
e
a
g
l
eorha
wkma
ybet
hes
a
mes
i
z
ea
sahuma
n’
s
.I
nmos
tbi
r
dst
hebul
koft
hee
y
e
is larger than that of the brain. Some birds see with great clarity from a wide range
of distances. A hawk soaring high above a field can spot a mouse in the grass. A
warbler can spot an insect egg an inch from its beak and instantly refocus to watch
for the approach of a predator. This is like having a magnifying glass and a
telescope combined. Most birds have both monocular and binocular vision. The
bi
r
d’
se
y
e
sbe
i
ngone
a
c
hs
i
deoft
hehe
a
d(
e
xc
e
ptowl
s
)g
i
ve
se
a
c
he
y
eagr
e
a
tf
i
e
l
d
of monocular vision. In front of the bird, where the two fields of monocular vision
overlap, birds have a field of binocular vision.
The beaks and feet of birds are designed to fit their niche in their habitat. Raptors
or birds of prey have long, sharp, curved claws called talons for grasping prey.
Birds of prey include hawks, osprey, owls, eagles and falcons. Water birds have
feet designed for swimming, such as the webbed feet of ducks or paddle-like feet of
grebes and loons. Climbing birds, such as woodpeckers, have two toes at the back
of their foot that act as braces. Most birds only have one toe at the back of their
foot.
Endothermic –
Having a body
temperature derived
f
r
omt
hea
ni
ma
l
’
s
own metabolism,
“
wa
r
m-bl
oode
d
.
”
Nor
t
hCar
ol
i
na’
s
state bird is the
cardinal.
Birds share
common traits:
-have backbones
-warm-blooded
-most have feathers
-have a bill and no
teeth
-light, sturdy bones
and wings
-most can fly
-hatch young from
eggs
Raptor –A bird of
prey.
Talons –The sharp,
grasping claws of
raptors.
The beaks of birds are suited to their food source. Birds that eat small insects, such
as warblers, have small, fine beaks. Birds that eat larger seeds, such as cardinals,
have broad based, heavy beaks for crushing the seeds. Birds that dig for insects,
such as woodpeckers, have long, narrow beaks. Birds of prey have hook-tipped,
sharp beaks for tearing flesh.
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(Grasping)
or Perching
Birds are commonly grouped as follows:
Flightless birds: Penguins, Ostriches, Kiwi
These birds have lost the ability of flight.
Waterfowl and Shorebirds: Wading birds, Swimmers, and Aerialists
Wa
t
e
rbi
r
dsha
veoi
lg
l
a
ndsor“
powde
rdown”pa
t
c
he
st
oke
e
pt
he
i
r
feathers waterproof. Members of the wading birds include two
groups smaller waders and long-legged waders. Smaller waders
include sandpipers, plovers, snipe, rails, woodcock and killdeer.
Long-legged waders include herons, cranes, egrets, ibises and
spoonbills. Aerialists or seabirds include gulls, terns, pelicans,
shearwaters, frigates and others. Swimmers are the ducks and
ducklike birds including geese, swans, coots, loons and grebes.
The Ducks a
r
es
ubd
i
vi
de
di
nt
o“
Puddle Ducks”orDabblers and
“
Di
vi
ngDuc
ks
”or Divers. Puddle ducks or dabblers are typically
birds of fresh shallow marshes, ponds and rivers. They are good
divers, but they usually feed by dabbling or tipping into the water
rather than submerging. Dabblers are sure-footed and can walk or
run well on land. Their diet is mostly vegetable, and many of these
ducks, like the mallard, pintail and wood duck are hunted for
food. Diving ducks are found in larger, deeper lakes and rivers, and
coastal bays and inlets. Divers feed by diving, often to considerable
depths, and they can travel far underwater. The diet of diving ducks
includes fish, shellfish, mollusks and aquatic plants. Their diet
makes most of them less desirable to sportsmen who hunt for food.
Ducks and many other waterfowl are migratory birds. The term
“f
l
y
way”is used to designate the migration routes of ducks. For
management purposes, four waterfowl flyways were established in
the United States in 1948. The four flyways are –Atlantic,
Mississippi, Central and Pacific. Flyway Councils were established
in 1952 to study flyway problems, develop waterfowl management
recommendations and work with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
in implementing waterfowl management and research.
Flyway –Term used
to designate
migration routes of
birds.
N.C. Hunter
Education Manual
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Fowl-like Birds or Game Birds are birds that are often described as
“
c
hi
c
ke
n-l
i
ke
”f
owl
.Me
mbe
r
soft
hi
sgr
oupi
nc
l
udequa
i
l
,gr
ous
e
,
turkeys, pheasants and partridges. Birds of this group are ground
inhabitants with strong legs; feed mostly on seeds, berries and other
vegetation; have short and rounded wings and hatch young that are
fully covered in down and can run and feed. The game birds are
often hunted by sportsmen.
Passerine (Perching) Birds –Of
t
e
nknowna
s“
s
ong
bi
r
ds
.
”
Perching birds include the well-known species such as cardinals,
jays, crows, mockingbirds, finches, thrushes, swallows, starlings,
wrens and many others. They are known as songbirds, because
many sing melodious tunes made by a complex, sound-producing
organ in the windpipe.
Nonpasserine Land Birds –Pigeons, doves, cuckoos, hummingbirds,
kingfishers, woodpeckers, swifts and nightjars are members of this
group.
Birds of Prey –Often referred to as raptors, these are the larger hunting
birds with hooked beaks and sharp talons. While people often think
of these birds as the meat eaters, the majority of birds prey on
animals (insects, worms, fish, amphibians, mammals, reptiles and
other birds). The other birds eat seeds, nuts, and vegetation. The
raptors play an important role in controlling rodent populations.
Raptors include:
Hawks:
Kites –Large insects, reptiles, rodents. The Snail
Kite is a specialist in snails.
Accipiters –Bird hawks
Harriers (known as the marsh hawk)- Mice, frogs,
snakes, and crayfish.
Buteos (Buzzard Hawks) –Mostly rodents and small
mammals; some amphibians, reptiles, birds
and insects.
Eagles –Fish, waterfowl, small mammals, and
carrion.
Osprey –Fish. The only raptor that plunges into the
water.
Falcons –Birds, rodents and insects.
Vultures –Carrion
Owls –Rodents and other mammals, birds, reptiles, fish and
large insects. Owls are mainly nocturnal. They have
large heads, flattened faces that form facial disks, and
large eyes on the front of their head giving them good
binocular vision.
Accidentals –Escapes, exotics, and introduced bird species.
Many birds migrate. Some migrate thousands of miles from wintering grounds to
nesting grounds for the spring and summer. Migration is a behavioral or functional
adaptation involving food and nesting. Many of the migrating birds found in North
Carolina are neotropical migrants. The neotropical migrants
Neotropical
Migrants –Birds
which winter in the
tropics (Central
America, South
America, and the
West Indies) and
migrate to North
America to mate and
raise young.
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winter in Central America, South America or the Caribbean, but they return to
North America in the spring and summer to nest and reproduce. Most warblers
found in North Carolina are neotropical migrants. Of the 25 species found in the
state, 20 are migratory. Other neotropical migrants include: vireos, thrushes,
hummingbirds, tanagers, orioles, swallows, buntings, flycatchers and broad-winged
hawks. Migration allows birds to find adequate habitat (food, water, shelter and
space) throughout the year and avoid extreme climatic changes.
NEOTROPICAL
MIGRANTS
All birds are oviparous, meaning they reproduce by laying eggs. The eggs are
fertilized internally, enclosed in a shell, and usually laid in nests. Many birds
establish territories before mating. Male bird coloration, posturing, dances or
sounds may all be part of attracting a mate or establishing territory.
Over 90% of birds are monogamous. One male pairs with one female for the
breeding season. Swans, eagles and geese pair for life. Both parents usually
participate in nest building and care of the young. Parents take turns incubating
and protecting the eggs or chicks while the other hunts for food. Some young are
altricial, helpless at birth, such as cardinals, while others are precocial, covered
with down and able to move, such as killdeer. Some birds are polygamous, and
males mate with more than one female or a female with more than one male.
The most serious threat to birds today is habitat destruction. By 1900 nearly half of
Nor
t
hAme
r
i
c
a
’
sf
or
e
s
t
swe
r
eg
one
. Thec
omme
r
c
i
a
lf
or
e
s
t
soft
oda
ya
r
eof
t
e
n
harvested at a young age and are incapable of supporting the diversity of birds that
an old growth or mixed forest will support. The use of land for development,
cities, highways and agriculture are also responsible for the loss of bird habitat.
The draining and destruction of wetlands has contributed to the loss of vital bird
habitats. Changes in vegetation may make a habitat unacceptable for a species.
These changes may also make the habitat better for a competitor, predator, or
pa
r
a
s
i
t
e
.The
s
ec
ha
ng
e
sha
vebe
e
ng
r
e
a
t
l
ya
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
e
dbyma
n’
sa
c
t
i
vi
t
i
e
s
.Si
nc
e
t
he160
0
’
s
,mos
tc
a
s
e
sofe
xt
i
nc
t
i
onha
vebe
e
nc
a
us
e
dbyhuma
na
c
t
i
ons
.I
n
addition to the loss of land and vegetation needed; contamination of air, land,
water, and living organisms with pollutants such as pesticides and PCBs has
threatened many species. Biomagnification is the accumulation of a chemical in
an animal to a harmful level. The biomagnification of DDT, a pesticide used from
t
he1940’
st
o1970’
s
,i
ns
omeoft
het
opa
vi
a
npr
e
da
t
or
st
hr
e
a
t
e
ne
dt
he
i
rs
ur
vi
va
l
.
The birds laid thin-shelled eggs that did not provide good protection for the
developing embryos. The birds most affected by DDT were the bald eagle, brown
pelican, peregrine falcon, and osprey. Other chemicals that have impacted bird
populations include PCBs (used by the electrical industry) and lead. Birds, which
eat carrion that has been killed with a lead bullet or ducks who eat lead shot from
the bottom of ponds or marshes, are poisoned. Hunting with lead shot over water is
no longer allowed. The introduction of exotic species has also played a role in
habitat destruction. The introduced species often outcompetes native birds for
needed resources and cavity-nesting sites. The introduction of the house sparrow
and European starling had a devastating effect on North American cavity nesting
birds, such as the eastern bluebird and wood duck, as did the cutting of forest and
removal of snag trees.
N.C. Wildlife
Resources
Commission
Oviparous Organisms that lay
eggs that develop
out
s
i
det
hef
e
ma
l
e
’
s
body.
Monogamous –
having only one
reproductive partner.
Biomagnification –
The concentration of
substances in animal
tissues as the
substances pass
through ecosystem
food webs.
Cavity Nesters –
animal species that
use cavities in trees
for homes and
nesting sites;
bluebirds, wood
ducks, flying
squirrels, owls,
some reptiles.
32
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Birds have become valuable indicators of environmental problems. Just as canaries
were taken into coal mines to test air quality, a close watch on the numbers and
health of our bird populations may warn us of environmental problems.
Mammals
Mammals a
r
e ve
r
t
e
br
a
t
ea
ni
ma
l
st
ha
tha
ve ha
i
r
,a
r
ee
ndot
he
r
mi
c or“
wa
r
mbl
oode
d,
”a
ndf
e
e
dt
he
i
ry
oungmi
l
kf
r
om ma
mma
r
ygl
a
nds
. Thema
mma
l
sge
t
their name from the presence of mammary glands. The skin of mammals is thick,
protective, and has an insulating covering of hair, often referred to as fur. The coat
of hair, called pelage, usually consists of two types of hair. Long guard hair
protects an underlying dense coat of smaller, insulating under hair, often called the
undercoat. Most mammals are viviparous, which means they have live young.
Mammals have reproductive cycles that help ensure internal fertilization and
successful development of the young. Mammals have also developed complex
behavior patterns that enhance their survival.
Pelage –The hair or
“f
ur
”ofamamma
l
.
Mammals of today are classified as monotremes, marsupials, and placentals.
~Monotremes are egg-laying (oviparous) mammals. Only two monotreme
species live today, the echidna (of Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea)
and the platypus (of Australia).
~Marsupial mammals are viviparous, primitive placentals who bear their
young alive. The young are born early and not fully developed. The
y
oungc
r
a
wli
nt
oapouc
hont
hef
e
ma
l
e
’
sbe
l
l
ywhe
r
et
he
yf
e
e
da
nd
continue to develop. The only marsupial in North America is the
Opossum. Most marsupials live in Australia.
~Placental mammals are viviparous and have a specialized structure called
a placenta, which nourishes the developing young until they are fully
formed. The placenta allows nutrients, gases, and wastes to diffuse
be
t
we
e
nt
hemot
he
r
’
sa
ndf
e
t
us
’
sbl
oods
t
r
e
a
msa
l
l
owi
ngt
hey
oungt
o
f
ul
l
yde
ve
l
oppr
ot
e
c
t
e
dwi
t
hi
nt
hef
e
ma
l
e
’
sbody
.Somepl
a
c
e
nt
a
l
ma
mma
l
s
’y
ounga
r
ehe
l
pl
e
s
sa
tbi
r
t
h,s
uc
ha
sr
a
c
c
oons
,f
oxe
s
,a
nd
squirrels. Ot
he
rpl
a
c
e
nt
a
lma
mma
l
s
’y
oungc
a
nwa
l
ka
ndr
uns
hor
t
l
y
a
f
t
e
rbi
r
t
h,s
uc
ha
sde
e
ra
nde
l
k.Thema
j
or
i
t
yoft
oda
y
’
sma
mma
l
sa
r
e
placental mammals.
Monotremes –Egg
laying mammals.
The adaptation of live birth is advantageous, because females are not necessarily
tied to a single nesting site. They are able to roam or migrate to find food or
favorable climate. Live birth does require a large amount of energy from the
female during development and from one or both parents caring for the young after
birth.
The gestation period is the l
e
ng
t
ho
ft
i
mey
oungde
ve
l
opwi
t
hi
nt
hef
e
ma
l
e
’
sbody
.
Gestation varies greatly. While the gestation period is relatively short in
marsupials, 8 to 40 days in different species, it is much longer in placentals ranging
from 20 days to over 19 months in various species.
Some mammals use delayed fertilization. Some bats mate in the autumn, but delay
fertilization until spring. This is apparently an adaptation to winter dormancy.
Viviparous - Giving
live birth.
Marsupials –
Mammals whose
young develop
inside the body for a
short time and
complete their
development outside
t
hemot
he
r
’
sbo
dy
inside a pouch.
Placentals –
Mammals that carry
the young inside the
mother
’
sb
odyunt
i
l
completely or almost
completely
developed.
Placenta –A
specialized structure
from which the
embryo receives
nutrients and oxygen
and eliminates
wastes.
Gestation –The
period of time that
placental mammals
develop inside the
mother.
33
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Many other mammals delay the development of the young. Fertilization occurs
right after mating, but development of the embryo is stopped after the first week or
two. This is called embryonic diapause or delayed implantation. Bear, some
bats, sea lions, martins and marsupials use embryonic diapause. This adaptation
allows young to be born at a time when resources favor their survival. In bear, this
adaptation ensures the young will be born when the mother is in the protection of
the den. In bats, the adaptation ensures birth in spring when insects are plentiful.
Hair is unique to mammals. Hair plays a role in sensory perception, temperature
regulation, and communication. The pelage or hair of most mammals is dark on
the upper side of the body and lighter on the underside of the body. This is called
countershading.
Countershading makes the mammals less visible to
predators, under most conditions. Some mammals have warning coloration that
advertises their defenses, such as a skunk. Pelage is reduced in aquatic mammals
that have fatty insulation. Whales and porpoises have only a few bristles of hair on
their snouts. There are a few mammals that have almost no hair, such as naked
mole rats. Mammals usually molt, or shed, seasonally or annually.
Air trapped in air spaces in the hair shaft and between hair and the skin as
mammals fluff up their fur provides an insulating layer. Mammals also have
muscles, which cause the hair to stand on end in threatening situations. This ability
gives the perception of increased size and strength, which is part of protective
behavior. Many mammals, such as wolves and foxes, raise their hair, particularly
on the neck and tail regions, to communicate a threat to members of their own
species and other animals.
Glands found in the skin of mammals secrete oils that lubricate and waterproof the
skin and hair. Most mammals also have sweat glands that release watery secretions
used for evaporative cooling. There are scent or musk glands around the face, feet,
or anus of many mammals. The secretions from these glands may be involved with
defense, species and sex recognition, and territorial behavior. Mammary glands, in
female animals, secrete milk for the young.
The milk contains water,
carbohydrates, fat, proteins, minerals, and antibodies.
The teeth and digestive tracts of mammals are adapted for different feeding habits.
Flat, grinding teeth and, sometimes, canines modified for nipping characterize
herbivores like the beaver, deer, and rabbit. Sharp front teeth for ripping and
piercing and flattened back teeth, premolars and molars, for grinding are
characteristic of omnivores, such as bear, raccoons, and gray foxes, which feed on
plant and animal matter. Predatory mammals that are carnivores have sharp canine
and incisor teeth for catching, killing, and tearing prey. Examples of these
mammals are wolves, coyotes, and bobcats.
Embryonic
diapause (delayed
implantation) –The
stopping of early
development to
allow young to be
born when
environmental
conditions favor
survival.
Countershading –
Contrasting
coloration that helps
conceal an animal
(dark on top side,
light on the bottom
side).
Nor
t
hCar
ol
i
na’
s
state mammal is the
gray squirrel.
Mammal share
common traits:
-have backbones
-are warm-blooded
-most are covered
with fur or hair
-young develop
i
ns
i
demot
he
r
’
s
body
-feed their young
milk
-care for their
young
Thema
mma
l
’
sbr
a
i
ni
sv
ery large compared to that of other vertebrates. Mammals
have enlarged cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum. This development goes hand
in hand with their active lifestyles and believed higher level of intelligence.
Mammals have many complex behaviors that enhance survival. The sense of sight
is well developed in most mammals, and nocturnal mammals often have enlarged
eyes that enhance vision in dim light. Color vision is not as well developed in
34
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mammals as in reptiles and birds. Primates (monkeys, apes, humans, etc.)
squirrels, and a few other mammals do have good color vision. Visual clues are
frequently used for communication. A wagging tail, bristled fur, open mouth, and
arched back communicate messages. Displays are often used to avoid conflict or
death within a social group, as when a subordinate wolf in a pack or a defeated
challenger roles on its back and exposes its vulnerable throat.
Smells are also important clues and tools for mammals. The sense of smell is acute
in many groups of mammals. The young of many mammals recognize their parents
and the parents their young by smell. Skunks use bad smelling chemicals to ward
off predators. Many mammals, such as bobcats and foxes, use excretions from anal
glands as a defense. Pheromones, chemical used as scents, are used to recognize
members of the opposite sex or same species and to identify or induce readiness for
mating. Pheromones may also help establish and recognize territories and ward off
predators. Many mammals spray urine or rub scents from scent glands on objects
in the environment to establish territories or advertise their reproductive readiness.
Some of these animals include rabbits, deer, foxes, and mink.
Pheromones –A
chemical that is
produced and
secreted to the
outside of the body
of one organism and
perceived by smell
by other organisms.
The tactile, or sense of touch, is also an important means of communication for
ma
mma
l
s
.“
Nos
i
ng
”
- the touching of noses- rubbing, and grooming are important
in reinforcing attachments and social interactions. Specialized hairs on the muzzle
and body give many mammals a heightened sense of touch, which is particularly
beneficial to those that are nocturnal.
The auditory (sound), or sense of hearing is also important. Mammals depend
heavily on their sense of hearing. This ability is highly developed in most
mammals, and they are the only animals that have developed flesh structures
associated with the external ear opening. Unfamiliar sounds trigger alarm or flight
a
spa
r
toft
hema
mma
l
’
sde
f
e
ns
e
.Soundsa
r
ea
l
s
ous
e
dt
oc
ommun
i
c
a
t
et
hr
e
a
t
st
o
members of other species or the same species. Sounds may be a large part of social
interaction within a group or species.
Another adaptation used by some mammals is echolocation. Echolocation
involves the sending out of high-pitched sounds and interpreting the echoes of
those sounds returning from obstacles or potential prey. This ability is highly
developed in bats and toothed whales. Some insectivores and rodents also have
this ability, and it is suspected in some other groups of mammals.
Mammals, like birds, are endothermic, which means they produce heat internally as
food is metabolized. Mammals maintain a relatively high body temperature by
thermoregulation. They use metabolic heat production, insulating pelage,
r
a
di
a
t
i
on,a
ndbe
ha
vi
or
st
oc
ont
r
olt
he
i
rbodyt
e
mpe
r
a
t
ur
e
. Ma
mma
l
s
’i
nt
e
r
na
l
thermostats increase the production and conservation of heat in cold weather and
the release of heat in hot weather.
Echolocation –The
production of and
interpretation of
returned highpitched sounds, used
to detect objects or
prey, as with a bat.
Thermoregulation –
Heat regulation or
control of the body
heat.
Adaptations for the release of heat include sweating, panting and radiation from
body surfaces. The long ears of a rabbit are an example of structures that radiate
and release heat. Mammals react to unfavorable environments by migration, winter
sleep, hibernation, aestivation (being inactive in dens or burrows), or use
35
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shade or water holes. These behaviors help them avoid excessively cold or hot
conditions.
Winter sleep –Ape
r
i
odofi
na
c
t
i
vi
t
yi
nwhi
c
ht
hema
mma
l
’
sbody
temperature remains near normal, and the mammal is
easily aroused and fully active in a short period.
(black bear)
Hibernation - A dormant state of decreased body temperature and
metabolism in which certain animals pass the winter.
The animals are not easily aroused. (little brown bat)
Aestivation - A dormant state of decreased metabolism in which some
animals endure hot, dry periods.
Migration - Movement of animals, usually periodic round trips, from
breeding to nonbreeding areas or to and from feeding
grounds.
Mammals are active animals and are highly mobile. Most mammals have four
well-developed limbs with digits (fingers or toes) that end in nails, claws, or hoofs.
Thes
t
r
uc
t
ur
eoft
hema
mma
l
’
sl
i
mbst
e
l
l
smuc
ha
boutt
hema
mma
l
’
swa
yofl
i
f
e
,
where they live, how they move, and how they escape predators or capture their
prey.
Plantigrade –(walkers) –walk with their entire foot touching the ground,
and generally have powerful, short limbs.
(bear, raccoons, shrews)
Digitigrade –walk on the theirt
oe
sa
nd“
ba
l
l
”oft
hef
oot
,wi
t
ht
hehe
e
l
raised, lengthening their limbs and their stride, and providing power
and speed.
(predatory carnivores: foxes, wolves, and bobcat)
Unguligrade –walk with only the tips of their toes on the ground. The
number of bones of the feet and lower leg are greatly reduced which
increases speed. The bones of the toes are enlarged and protected by
strong hooves. These mammals depend on speed to escape.
(deer, antelopes, elk)
Other mammals, such as rabbits and some mice species, combine speed when
running and the ability to jump as means to escape predators. These mammals
have large, elongated hind feet.
Arboreal mammals have a variety of methods of movement. Opossums and
monkeys cling to tree branches by using a prehensile tail or opposable digits.
Squirrels climb and cling by use of sharp claws. Flying squirrels have the ability to
glide because of folds of skin extending from their front legs to their back legs.
Bats are the only truly flying ma
mma
l
. Theba
t
’
sf
or
e
l
i
mbsha
vea
da
pt
e
di
nt
o
wings.
Fossorial mammals are mammals that live underground. These mammals have
strong, often short forelimbs with broad front feet and long claws adapted for
burrowing. Moles are fully fossorial while groundhogs are partially fossorial.
Fossorial - Refers
to animals that live
underground.
Examples:
gopher frog
mole salamander
mole cricket
spadefoot toad
worm snake
chipmunk
moles
groundhog
mole skink
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Semi-aquatic and aquatic mammals are adapted to move or live in water. Semiaquatic mammals are active on land and in the water. Most of these mammals have
hind feet that are webbed, and they usually have flatted tails. Some semi-aquatic
mammals are the beaver, muskrat, nutria, and river otter.
Fully aquatic mammals live only in the water, and the forelimbs are modified into
flippers, hind limbs are absent, and the tail modified into broad, flattened flukes.
Whales, dolphins, porpoises, and manatees are examples. Other aquatic mammals
live most of their lives in the water but return to land to breed and bear young or
sun themselves. Sea lions, seals, and walruses are examples.
Among the concerns about human and wildlife interactions is the fact that the
warm-blooded mammals are carriers of rabies. The most commonly infected
animals include raccoons, foxes, skunks, and bats. Mammals may also be carriers
for ticks that are vectors for Rocky Mountain spotted fever or Lyme disease.
Today, the greatest threats to mammals are habitat destruction and habitat
fragmentation. Historically, market hunting, trapping for fur, and killing for
elimination of the species from the area caused extinction of a number of species,
and endangered other species. Elk, bison, gray wolf, and beaver were totally
eradicated from North Carolina by hunting and trapping. White tailed deer, red
wolves, and black bear populations were seriously threatened. Special measures
have been taken to reintroduce beaver, red wolf, and elk populations; and to
increase the bear and white tailed deer population, which has rebounded
dramatically. Black bear populations have also successfully increased. The
reintroduction of the beaver has been very successful. Efforts to reintroduce the
red wolf were successful on the coastal plain but not in the mountain region. Only
recently, have efforts been made to reintroduce elk. The large mammals, especially
large carnivores, are most affected by loss of habitat and habitat fragmentation,
because these mammals must have large ranges to meet their needs. Also affected
by habitat destruction or fragmentation are the specialists.
Rabies –A viral
disease of the
central nervous
system transmitted
by the bite of a
mammal.
Market Hunting –
The taking of
wildlife game to feed
the populations of
the growing cities in
t
he1
80
0’
sa
nde
ar
ly
190
0’
s
.
Animal Adaptations
Animals are adapted to meet the demands of their environment. Some of these
adaptations are physical and some are behavioral. Many of these adaptations have
been mentioned as the various animals were discussed.
Examples of physical adaptations include:
- The white coloration of the fur of polar bears, arctic foxes, arctic hares,
and of the feathers of the snowy owl, which helps conceal them in the
snowy, arctic environment.
- The thick, waterproof fur and swimming ability of river otters and
beavers.
- The ability of mussels and oysters to withstand pounding waves and daily
exposure to the sun and drying air as tides go out.
Physical adaptation
–an adaptation in
t
hea
ni
mal
’
s
structure.
Behavioral
adaptation –an
adaptation that
deals with the
ani
ma
l
’
sbe
h
av
i
or
s
that increase
chances of survival.
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- The spotted coloration of the deer fawn, which helps camouflage it from
predators.
- The large retinas and high number of rods (light gathering cells) in the
owl
’
se
y
e
,whi
c
hg
i
vei
te
xc
e
pt
i
ona
lvi
s
i
on,a
nde
y
e
sont
hef
r
ontoft
he
head, which give it good binocular vision, assist their predatory skills.
- Insects that look like leaves or sticks, which conceals them, such as the
de
a
dl
e
a
fmot
ha
nd“
wa
l
ki
ngs
t
i
c
k”ors
t
i
c
ki
ns
e
c
t
.
- The use of bright colors or color patterns to warn predators, such as those
insects and amphibians that contain poisons.
Examples of behavioral adaptations include:
- The deer fawn lying perfectly still in the tall grass to escape the attention
of possible predators.
- Ther
a
bbi
t
’
s“
f
r
e
e
z
i
ng
,
”ors
t
a
y
i
ngpe
r
f
e
c
t
l
ys
t
i
l
lt
oe
s
c
ape a predators
attention, and the rabbits zigzagging when running from a predator.
- Lizards and snakes burrowing beneath the sand to escape the heat in
the desert.
- Hibernation or winter sleep by many species to escape the cold and
limited resources of winter.
- Migration by some birds and mammals to avoid harsh weather and
limited resources.
- Establishment of territories by many species to protect mating, breeding,
and feeding grounds.
- Many species, such as flying squirrels, foxes, and opossums, being active
mostly at night (nocturnal).
Migratory Patterns
Migration is the periodic movement of animals over relatively long distances.
Animals that migrate usually make one round trip between two areas each year.
Among the most well known migrations are those of birds, whales, some
butterflies, and some oceangoing fish. Monarch butterflies that winter in Mexico,
and salmon which return to the stream of their hatching to spawn, are examples.
Be
c
a
us
e70% oft
hee
a
r
t
h’
sl
a
ndmass is in the Northern Hemisphere, migration is
more noticeable for species in the Northern Hemisphere. Most migrations are
north/south movements, but some migrations involve east/west movement or
altitude changes. Migration is usually associated with breeding or feeding patterns.
It is also a behavioral adaptation allowing animals to avoid harsh climatic
conditions and to find the necessary food, shelter, or space throughout the year.
Some long-distance migrating species store fat, equal to 50% of their body weight,
for their nonstop migration. Some other species take longer periods to migrate and
stop to feed and rest along the way.
Ani
ma
l
sus
ua
l
l
ymi
g
r
a
t
ei
nr
e
s
pons
et
o“
i
nt
e
r
na
lc
l
oc
ks
,
”ge
ne
t
i
core
nvi
r
onme
nt
a
l
factors. The decrease in the number of daylight hours is an important migratory
cue for many birds.
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Migratory animals use three methods to find their way:
Piloting –The movement from one familiar landmark to another. This
method is used mostly for short distances and is not good for night
or over ocean movement.
Orientation –The animals detect compass directions and travel in a straightline path.
Navigation –The determining of present location relative to other locations,
as well as detecting compass direction. This is the most complex
method.
For orientation, some animals commonly use the sun for day movement and stars
for night movement. The indigo bunting, which migrates at night, fixes on the
North Star. Some night migrators also use the sun by moving in the proper
direction from the sunset. Some birds detect magnetism and orient by internal
magnetic compasses. Very little is understood about how they accomplish this.
Activity Patterns and Cycles
Animals have patterns of activity. There are certain times of the day that species
are active. These patterns can be divided into three types.
Nocturnal –These animals are active at night. Many animals have
adaptations to help them fly, hunt, feed, or walk at night.
Diurnal –These are animals that are active during daylight hours.
Crepuscular –These animals are active at dawn or dusk.
Organisms also have cycles or rhythms, which affect their behaviors. Light
influences the cycles of daily activity, known as circadian rhythms. Circa means
approximately, and dies means day. Included in these daily rhythms are activity
and sleep, feeding and drinking, and changes in body temperature. Many
freshwater and marine invertebrates migrate between the surface waters and the
lower levels of the water column daily.
Nocturnal –active
at night.
Diurnal –active
during daylight.
Crepuscular –
active at dawn and
dus
k
,“t
wi
l
i
g
ht
.
”
Circadian rhythms
–processes that
cycle approximately
every 24 hours.
The length of daylight, photoperiod, also affects behaviors for preparing for
migration, hibernation, or winter sleep. Light also plays a role in triggering the
secretion of hormones to initiate reproductive cycles. Some organisms, such as
invertebrates living in the sediments of lakes and streams, react negatively to light
and their daily activities are directed away from the light.
Many species that live along seashores or in salt marshes are tied to tidal (lunar)
cycles. Fiddler crabs feed on mud flats during low tide and retreat into sealed
burrows during high tide. The reproductive cycle is also linked to the tidal cycle.
Female fiddler crabs and some intertidal snails release their eggs only on the very
highest, bimonthly tides.
Reproductive periods of animals and the flowering of plants are also cycles. They
are usually seasonal, and most are influenced by light and temperature. While most
animal and plants reproduce in warmer periods of greater hours of daylight, some
cycle differently. Black bear have their young while they are in the den during the
winter. Migration, hibernation, and reproduction are typically annual cycles in
most animals.
Tidal or Lunar
Cycle –The cycle of
high tides and low
tides influenced by
t
hemoo
n’
s
gravitational pull;
two high tides and
two low tides in a 24
hour period.
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Animal Signs
Animals leave various forms of evidence of their presence. These signs can be
used to identify what species inhabit or have passed through an area.
Tracks are obvious signs and are easily used to identify the species. The prints left
by members of the dog family, such as wolves and coyotes, and those made by
most mammals will have toe nail marks. Because of their retractable claws, tracks
of members of the cat family will not have any nail marks. Track or drag marks
can be used to identify insects, amphibians, reptiles, and birds in addition to the
mammals.
Scat is the solid waste of animals. To the trained eye, scat is also a good indicator
of the species in an area.
Rubs or scrapes are marks left on trees or scars on saplings when animals break or
bend some limbs, or bruise the bark.
Tooth marks or gnaw patterns left on trees or branches can be used to identify
rodent species, such as the beaver, porcupine, mice, and squirrels, as well as other
species including rabbits and moose.
N.C. Hunter Education
Manual
Tracks and Scat
Claw marks or scars on trees will be made by bears climbing or scratching and by
bobcats and raccoons
Scratching marks on the ground may be used to indicate many species including
bobcats and wild turkey.
Nut opening patterns are characteristics of various squirrel and mice species.
Burrows, dens, nests, lodges, and earth cores (or runways) show evidence of the
presence of many species, some of which are beaver, muskrat, voles, badger,
groundhog, tortoise, crayfish, mole crickets and squirrels.
Smells (scents or odors) can indicate the presence or passing of skunk, weasel, or
mink.
Wallows are made by river otter, deer, elk, and wild boar.
Hair found on rubs, in wallows, or on branches can help determine the animal
species, as can feathers.
Sounds, vocalizations, and calls are species specific and can be used to identify
them. Thumping sounds may be made by skunks, while pawing is characteristic of
deer.
Pits or tree borings can be used to identify many bird species including the
sapsucker and pileated woodpecker. Wing marks are also left by many bird species
when dusting or taking flight.
Prints and tail drags are used to indicate reptiles and amphibians species.
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Pellets are regurgitated, undigested matter commonly produced by owls, crows,
blue jays, and some other bird species.
Food remnants and cashes are feeding debris and caches (stored food), Some
examples follow. Bear may tear apart stumps, logs, or trees when searching for
insects and may store food in shallow pits covered with dirt, branches, or debris.
Other animals leave twig or grass cuttings, piles of opened shells, parts of seeds or
nuts, snails, pieces of aquatic vegetation, or pine cones. Muskrats have feeding
platforms marked by discarded or uneaten grass and reed cuttings or by floating
blades of cattails and other vegetation. They also may leave piles of freshwater
clam shells called middens. Red squirrels leave piles of cones or remnants of
cones, acorns or hickory nuts with a ragged hole at one end.
Endangered Species
The Endangered Species Act was passed in 1973 to help save species facing the
risk of extinction. The federal act defines endangered s
pe
c
i
e
sa
s“
a
nys
pe
c
i
e
s
,
whi
c
hi
si
nda
nge
rofe
xt
i
nc
t
i
ont
hr
oug
houta
l
loras
i
g
ni
f
i
c
a
ntpor
t
i
onofi
t
sr
a
ng
e
.
”
A threatened s
pe
c
i
e
si
s“
a
nys
pe
c
i
e
swhi
c
hi
sl
i
ke
l
yt
obe
c
omee
nda
nge
r
e
dwi
t
hi
n
the for
e
s
e
e
a
bl
ef
ut
ur
et
hr
oug
houta
l
loras
i
g
ni
f
i
c
a
ntpor
t
i
onofi
t
sr
a
nge
.
”Spe
c
i
e
s
can be classified federally by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or on a state basis
by the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission. A special concern species
is any state listed species of special concern for becoming threatened or
endangered.
N.C. Cooperative
Extension Service,
Endangered Species
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Nor
t
hCa
r
ol
i
na
’
sPr
ot
e
c
t
e
dSpe
c
i
e
s
Type of
Animal
# of Species
# Protected
% of the Species
Protected
___________________________________________________________________
Birds
Mammals
Amphibians
Reptiles
Fish
Mollusk
410
144
74
95
248
301
25
17
16
14
47
73
6%
11.8 %
21.6 %
14.7 %
18.9 %
24.2 %
The causes of species becoming endangered include:
Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation
Environmental Pollution
Introduction of Exotic (Non-Native) Species
Commercial Exploitation
Animals that specialize, rather than adapt to changing conditions are more
vulnerable to extinction. An example is the Everglades Kite, which feeds only on
apple snails. Animals that depend upon an extremely narrow food source, resource,
or habitat are the most at risk. While some species will become extinct from
natural factors, the causes listed above are all related to the human factor in the
environment.
Wildlife Management
Today every government has laws to maintain wildlife. Many federal agencies
including the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Marine Fisheries Service,
and U.S. Forestry Service share responsibility for wildlife management and work
with state agencies to protect wildlife. The North Carolina Wildlife Resource
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Commission, and similar agencies in each state, are responsible for fish and game
species.
The important principles of wise wildlife management stated by the North Carolina
Wildlife Resource Commission are:
- Wildlife management must be based on biological data.
- The management of wildlife must include management of man because
ma
n’
sa
c
t
i
vi
t
i
e
sa
f
f
e
c
twi
l
dl
i
f
e
.
- Management must be designed to benefit the entire biota (all the plants
and animals in an environment) not just wildlife.
- Management means conservation (wise use); not preservation (nonuse).
Hunting is the main tool employed to manage wildlife populations, and hunters
provide much of the funding for wildlife management programs.
Wildlife management laws protect wildlife by:
- Making sure not too many hunted animals are killed (establishing limits
and hunting seasons).
- Making sure none of the animals that cannot be hunted are killed.
- Making sure wildlife habitat is not damaged.
Prescribed burns are a valuable wildlife management tool. Ecosystems which are
fire dependent must have periodic fires to be maintained. Longleaf pine forests and
pocosins are examples of these ecosystems in North Carolina. The success of the
wildlife in these areas is dependent on the health of the ecosystem. Prescribed
burns also help provide diversity within a habitat by opening up areas for different
stages of successional growth and creating more edge effect.
Wildlife managers have seen a need for habitat protection and control as a
necessary tool. Federal parks, preserves, forests and state parks and lands were
needed to give wildlife a new start. Today an ecosystem approach is a more
common management practice. To maintain species populations, the habitat must
be protected. All things are connected.
43
Wildlife - “Al
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econnect
ed”Chief Seattle
Wildlife Profiles
Team members will be responsible for knowing the animals of a designated set of
wildlife profiles each year. The set will be decided upon on a yearly basis by the
Envirothon Education Committee, and teams will be informed.
The Wildlife Profiles are available from the North Carolina Wildlife Resources
Commission and can be obtained from their website at www.ncwildlife.org, or you
may go directly to the profiles page at
www.ncwildlife.org/pg076_WildlifeSpeciesCon/pg7b2_sets.htm.
A list of the Wildlife Profiles sets follows.
North Carolina
Wildlife Resources
Commission
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Wildlife - “Al
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Wildlife Resources
North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission:
“
Wi
l
dl
i
f
ei
nNor
t
hCa
r
ol
i
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”ma
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a
z
i
ne
Hunter Safety Education Manual
Nor
t
h Ca
r
ol
i
na
’
s St
a
t
e a
nd Fe
de
r
a
l
l
y Listed
(Pamphlet)
www.ncwildlife.org
Wildlife
Species
North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service
Pamphlets on:
Wildlife Terms
Various Species of Wildlife
Endangered Species
Herbaceous Plants for Wildlife
www.ces.ncsu.edu
USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service
Publications available from local Soil and Water Conservation District
Office
North Carolina Forestry Service
www.dfr.state.nc.us
Field Guides:
Peterson Field Guides: A Field Guide to Animal Tracks
Eastern Birds
Mammals
National Audubon Society Guides on:
Reptiles and Amphibians
Fish
Birds
Mammals
Familiar Animal Tracks of North America
Golden Guides:
Zoology
Insects
Insect Pests
Fish
Reptiles and Amphibians
Birds
Mammals
Ecology
Pond life
45