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Chapter 23
The Transformation
of Europe
Philip IV of Spain (reigned 1621-1665)
painted by Diego Velasquez (1631-1632)
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The Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther (1483-1546) publically critiques
Roman Catholic church practices in 1517
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Indulgences: preferential pardons for charitable donors
Writes the Ninety-Five Theses, which are rapidly
reproduced with new printing technology
Excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520
1520s-1530s: Dissent spread throughout Germany
and Switzerland

Religious dissent intertwined with political desire for less
interference from Rome
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Roots of Reform

Church’s political involvement, wealth, power
foster greed and corruption, making it especially
vulnerable to
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Construction of St. Peter’s Basilica put enormous earthly
wealth on display
The “Great Schism” of late 1300s and early 1400s, with two
popes (one in Rome and one in Avignon) also hurt the
Church’s reputation
Spiritual dissatisfaction

Many people wanted more personal involvement with the
divine, not filtered through the hierarchy of the Church
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Roots of Reform
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Martin Luther
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Luther’s expanded critique
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Closure of monasteries
Translations of Bible into vernacular
End of priestly authority, especially the pope
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German princes interested
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Return to biblical text for authority
Opportunities for greater assertion of local control
Support for reform spreads throughout Germany
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Reform Outside Germany
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Switzerland, Low Countries follow Germany
England: King Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) has
conflict with pope over requested divorce
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France: John Calvin (1509-1564) codifies a
new Protestant theology while in exile in Geneva
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England consolidates its own church by 1560
Calvin by Titian
Doctrine of Predestination
Total Depravity
Spread of Calvinists teachings fuels eruption of new religious
tension and conflict just as things were settling down between
Catholics and Lutherans
Scotland, Netherlands, Hungary also experience Calvinist
reform movements
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The Catholic Reformation

Roman Catholic Church reacts
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Refining doctrine, missionary activities to Protestants,
attempt to renew spiritual activity
Council of Trent (1545-1563), periodic meetings
to discuss reform
Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded by St. Ignatius
Loyola (1491-1556)
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Rigorous religious and secular education
Effective missionaries
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Witch Hunts
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Most prominent in regions of tension between
Catholics and Protestants
Late fifteenth century development in belief in
devil and human assistants
Sixteenth to seventeenth centuries approximately
110,000 people put on trial; 45,000 put to death
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Vast majority females, usually single, widowed
Held accountable for crop failures, miscarriages, etc.
New England: 234 witches tried, 36 hung
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Religious Wars
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Protestants and Roman Catholics
Catholics fight in France
(1562-1598)
1588 Philip II of Hapsburg Spain attacks England to force
a return to Catholicism

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English successfully attack by sending flaming unmanned ships
into the fleet
A great storm (“Protestant Wind”) breaks up the armada
Dutch rebel against Spain in 1568 and gain nominal
independence by 1609 although Spain does not formally
recognize independence until 1648
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The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)
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Holy Roman emperor attempts to force
Bohemians to return to Roman Catholic church
All of Europe becomes involved in conflict

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Aside from religious hatred, political and
economic issues were also involved
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Principal battleground: Germany
Especially rivalry between Habsburgs and French Bourbons
Approximately one-third of German population
destroyed
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The Consolidation of Sovereign States

Emperor Charles V (r. 1519-1556) attempts to revive
Charlemagne’s Holy Roman Empire as a way
to create a politically unified central Europe
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Through marriage, political alliances, and war
Ultimately fails
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Protestant Reformation provides cover for local princes to assert
greater independence.
Military opposition from France and Ottoman Empire
Peace of Augsburg (1555) allows rulers of 224 German states to
dictate religion within their own territory: Catholic or Lutheran
Unlike China, India, and the Ottoman Empire, Europe does
not consolidate into a single polity, but many smaller states
Charles V abdicates to monastery in Spain and dies in 1558
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Sixteenth-Century Europe
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The New Monarchs
Henry VIII
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Italian city-states become well-developed as economic
powers through trade, manufacturing, finance
Yet England, France, and Spain surge ahead as
consolidated states in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries with innovative new tax revenues,
bureaucratic reforms, and record-keeping
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England: Henry VIII (1491-1547)
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Fines and fees for royal services; confiscated monastic holdings
France: Louis XI (1423-1483), Francis I (1494-1547)
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New taxes on sales, salt trade
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The Spanish Inquisition
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Founded by Fernando and Isabel in 1478
Original task: search for secret practitioners of
Judaism or Islam, later search for Protestants
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Spread to Spanish holdings outside Iberian peninsula in
western hemisphere
Also helps to consolidate state power
Imprisonment, executions
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Intimidated nobles who might have considered
Protestantism
Archbishop of Toledo imprisoned 1559-1576
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Constitutional States

England and the Netherlands develop institutions of popular
representation in the seventeenth century
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England: constitutional monarchy
Netherlands: republic
English Civil War, 1642-1651
 Begins with opposition to royal taxes
 Religious elements: Anglican church favors complex ritual,
complex church hierarchy (like Roman Catholicism), opposed by
Calvinist Puritans
 King Charles I and parliamentary armies clash
 King loses, is beheaded in 1649
 Commonwealth of England—Republican government—under
Oliver Cromwell from 1649 to 1659 (last six years were the
“Protectorate”—essentially a military dictatorship of Cromwell).
 Monarchy restored in 1660 when King Charles II takes the
throne; when he dies in 1685, his brother James II becomes king.
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Constitutional States
Woodcut of the beheading of Charles I in 1649
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England’s Glorious Revolution
(1688-1689)
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After king is killed, Puritans take over and create a
“Commonwealth” (republic); but it eventually becomes
a dictatorship under Cromwell
Monarchy restored in 1660, religious and political
infighting resumes
Resolution with nearly bloodless coup called the
“Glorious Revolution”
King James II deposed, daughter Mary and Dutch
Protestant husband William of Orange take throne

Agreed to share governance between crown and parliament
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The Dutch Republic
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King Philip II of Spain attempts to suppress Calvinists
in his possession, the Netherlands, in 1567
Leads to a large-scale rebellion; by 1581, Netherlands
declares independence but Spain fights it; a truce in
1609 grants Dutch independence in all but name
Republic based on a representative parliamentary
system; men of property vote
Netherlands already an economic powerhouse during
the struggle for independence
Independence finally given full recognition by Spain in
1648 at the end of the Thirty-Years’ War
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Absolute Monarchies
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Theory of divine right of kings
French absolutism designed by Cardinal Richelieu
(under King Louis XIII, 1624-1642)
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Destroyed castles of nobles, crushed aristocratic
conspiracies
Built bureaucracy to bolster royal power base
Ruthlessly attacked Calvinists
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Louis XIV (the “Sun King,” 1643-1715)
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L’état, c’est moi: “The State – that’s me.”
Magnificent palace at Versailles, 1670s, becomes
his court
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Largest building in Europe
1,400 fountains
25,000 fully grown trees transplanted
Power centered in court, important nobles
pressured to maintain presence there so Louis
could keep an eye on them
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Louis XIV (the “Sun King,” 1643-1715)
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Absolutism in Russia:
The Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917)
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Peter I (“the Great,” r. 1682-1725)
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Traveled to Western Europe when young to learn how to
modernize Russia
Developed modern Russian army and navy, reformed
Russian government bureaucracy, demanded changes in
fashion: beards forbidden
Built new European-style capital at St. Petersburg
Catherine II (“the Great,” r. 1762-1796)
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Huge military expansion
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Partitions of Poland, 1772-1797
Social reforms at first, but she becomes conservative with
the Pugachev peasant rebellion (1773-1774)
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The European States System
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No imperial authority to mediate regional disputes
Peace of Westphalia (1648) after Thirty Years’ War
European states to be recognized as sovereign and
equal
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Religious, other domestic affairs protected
But warfare continues: opposition to French
expansion, Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
Balance of power tenuous
Innovations in military technology proceed rapidly
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Europe After the Peace of Westphalia,
1648
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Population Growth and Urbanization

Rapidly growing population due to Columbian
exchange
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Improved nutrition
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Role of the potato (considered an aphrodisiac in sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries)
Replaces bread as staple of diet
Better nutrition reduces susceptibility to plague
Epidemic disease becomes insignificant for overall
population decline by mid-seventeenth century
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Population Growth in Europe
180
160
140
120
100
Millions
80
60
40
20
0
1500
1700
1800
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Urbanization
500000
450000
400000
350000
300000
Madrid
Paris
London
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
1550
1600
1650
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Early Capitalism
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Private parties offer goods and services on a free market
Own means of production
Private initiative, not government control
Supply and demand determines prices
Banks, stock exchanges develop in early modern period
Joint-stock companies (English East India Company,
VOC)
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Relationship with empire-building
Medieval guilds discarded in favor of “putting-out”
system
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Impact of Capitalism on the
Social Order
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Rural life
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Improved access to manufactured goods
Increasing opportunities in urban centers begins
depletion of the rural population
Inefficient institution of serfdom abandoned in
western Europe, retained in Russia until
nineteenth century
Nuclear families replace extended families
Gender changes as women enter income-earning
work force
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Capitalism and Morality
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Adam Smith (1723-1790) argued that capitalism
would ultimately improve society as a whole
But major social change increases poverty in
some sectors
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Rise in crime
Witch-hunting a possible consequence of capitalist
tensions and gender roles
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The Copernican Universe
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Reconception of the Universe
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Church teachings rely on a cosmology developed by a
second-century Greek scholar, Claudius Ptolemy of
Alexandria, Egypt (90 – 168 A.D.)
Earth is motionless at the center of the universe inside
nine concentric spheres
Christians understand heaven as last sphere
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The Copernican Universe
1568 Portuguese rendering of the Ptolemaic Universe
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The Copernican Universe
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Astronomers have difficulty reconciling
Ptolemaic model of perfect spheres
with observed planetary movement,
which are irregular
In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus (14731553) of Poland breaks with Ptolemaic
theory.
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Irregular movements better explained
through heliocentric model
Notion of a moving Earth challenges
Christian doctrine and cosmology
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The Scientific Revolution
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Johannes Kepler (Germany, 1571-1630) and
Galileo Galilei (Italy, 1564-1642) reinforce
Copernican model through careful observation
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) revolutionizes study
of physics by creating a mathematical expression
of gravity, a force that operates the same in the
heavens and on earth.
Rigorous challenge to church doctrines
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Women and Science
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William Harvey (1578-1657), and English
physician, famed for studying human blood
circulation, also studied reproduction.
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From dissecting animals, Harvey theorizes innate female
inferiority: thought that energizing male sperm generated life by
acting on inert and passive female eggs.
New print culture disseminated ideas about feminine inferiority
Émilie du Châtelet (1706-1749)
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French mathematician and physicist and correspondent of
Voltaire
Translated Newton’s Principia Mathematica into French
Died at age 42 due to complications from her final preganancy
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The Enlightenment
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Trend away from Aristotelian philosophy
and church doctrine in favor of rational
thought and scientific analysis
Voltaire
John Locke (England, 1632-1704) and Baron de
Montesquieu (France, 1689-1755) attempt to discover
natural laws of politics
Center of Enlightenment: France, philosophes
Voltaire (1694-1778), caustic attacks on Roman Catholic
church: écrasez l’infame, “crush the damned thing”
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Deism increasingly popular
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The Theory of Progress
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Assumption that Enlightenment thought and the
application of reason to all human affairs would
ultimately lead to human harmony and material
wealth
Enlightenment marked by decline in authority of
traditional organized religion, especially among
educated elites
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