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India, China, and Byzantium
Lin Cheng yawned and pushed aside the report he had been writing.
Noticing that the room was filled with a soft glow, he looked out the
window. A full moon lit up the canal below. Barges filled with rice
floated by on their way to Beijing. It had been a good harvest, and
the peasants were singing as they poled their barges through the
water. Tonight, Lin Cheng felt like a father to these strong, hardworking people. He had been their governor for 20 years. And thanks
to the policies of the emperor, he had been a just one.
Lin Cheng thought how lucky he had been. He no longer minded
that his older brother had inherited the family property. He, Lin
Cheng, had been the clever one. He had scored high on the civil service
examination. Now, instead of acting as the manager of his brother's
estate, he ruled a whole province.
What if he had been born under the previous line of emperors?
Under the Sui, he would have had no opportunity for advancement.
Would he have grown resentful of his brother's arrogance? Would he
have escaped to this very province? Instead of bringing peace and
plenty to its people, would he have urged them to rebel against their
rulers?
Lin Cheng felt his pulse quicken a little. These contrasting fates
would make a good poem. He turned back to his writing table and
dipped his brush in the ink.
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U
s empires grew larger and more complex, their rulers tried
many methods of governing. Lin Cheng lived during the Tang
Dynasty in China. For the most part, the emperors of this line ruled
wisely. Lin Cheng was able to better his own life and to help the
people under him prosper. However fair and just the Tang emperors
might have been, they did not allow their people a voice in making
government policies.
The leaders of the empires of the Gupta in India, the Tang in
China, and the Byzantine in the Middle East used several methods
of keeping control over vast territories. They established a close relationship between religion and the state. Their subjects, they reasoned, would be more likely to obey the laws of the state if the laws
were backed by religious principles. The Gupta and Byzantine emperors made the greatest use of this method. The Tang emperors did
something similar. They revived the philosophy of Confucius, which
taught that people should have respect for their rulers.
Ei!
THE GUPTA EMPIRE: A.D. 320-600
After the fall of the Maurya Empire in about 185 B.C., India
passed through a long period of political unrest and division. When
order was restored, a great civilization arose.
Three Emperors
In A.D. 320, a new ruler took over a northeastern area of India
called Magadha. He had the same name as the founder of the Maurya
Empire, Chandragupta. He conquered more territory and became the
first in a line of Indian rulers called the Gupta Dynasty.
The second Gupta emperor, Samudragupta (ruled 330-375) tried
to restore unity to India. He reconquered many of the kingdoms that
had become independent after the fall of the Mauryas. Others he won
back by making alliances with their rulers. At the end of his reign,
Samudragupta's empire included much of the territory once ruled by
the Mauryas. This new empire arose during the period in which Constantinople replaced Rome as capital of the Roman Empire.
The third Gupta emperor, Chandragupta II (ruled 375-415), defeated the Shakas, a people from the borders of China. They were
trying to invade western India. With this military success, Chandragupta II won control of the trade with the Middle East and China.
Foreign trade improved his empire's economy and enriched its culture
with new ideas.
India, China, and Byzantium
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Cultural Achievements
A long period of peace followed the military conquests of the early
emperors. It was a time of great intellectual achievement for India.
The Gupta rulers used their wealth to establish colleges and universities. The upper classes supported a rich cultural life. Consequently,
Indian art, science, and scholarship flourished.
The universities and libraries protected the Sanskrit writings (literature) of the past. These institutions became famous, and people
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EXPANDING ZONES OF EXCHANGE AND ENCOUNTER (A.D.
500-1200)
came to them from China and Southeast Asia. When the scholars
returned to their own countries, they took Indian customs as well as
the Sanskrit language back with them.
Indian writers and artists produced many masterpieces during
this time. A great poet named Kalidasa (lived about 400 to 450) wrote
plays in verse that were enjoyed by people of all classes. His themes
were love, adventure, beauty of nature, and moral lessons. Music and
dance forms that are still popular today were developed during the
Gupta Dynasty.
Two long poems completed during this period are the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata. Both were passed down through the years by
oral tradition before they were written down. They are still popular.
The Ramayana is a tale of an adventurous hero who is separated from
his wife for many years. It has similarities to the Iliad and Odyssey
credited to Homer in ancient Greece. The Mahabharata contains
moral lessons and is respected as a source of religious inspiration and
instruction.
Science and Mathematics
Indian scientists and mathematicians of that time developed important theories and ideas. They invented the decimal system and
the concept of zero. The numbers 1 through 9 plus 0 are the ones we
use today. Because they came to Europe through contacts with the
Arab world, they are called Arabic numerals. The system is much
easier to use for mathematical calculations than the one devised by
the Romans.
A mathematician named Ayabhata calculated pi, a necessary concept in geometry. (Pi expresses the relationship between the circumference of a circle and its diameter.) Ayabhata also realized that the
earth is a sphere. He understood that lunar eclipses are caused by
the shadow of the earth falling on the moon. Other Indian scientists
developed theories about gravity.
Organization of the Gupta State
Indian government under the Gupta rulers was less centralized
than it had been during the Maurya Dynasty. Princes controlled areas
outside the center ofthe empire. Their only official duty to the Gupta
emperor was to send him tribute (taxes, gifts). The princes did, however, have strong ties to the emperor. It was commonly believed that
the emperor was related to the gods. No one wanted to irritate the
gods by disturbing the emperor. The emperor also secured the friendship and loyalty of the princes by making marriage alliances with
their families.
Like the outlying kingdoms, towns and villages throughout the
empire were largely self-governing. Nonetheless, the emperor exerted
India, China, and Byzantium
indirect control through religion. Hinduism was the religion favored
by the Gupta dynasty, and Hindu religious leaders regulated village
society. Local temples provided meetingplaces for village assemblies.
The priests kept records of local history and preserved local legends.
They also helped manage important public works, such as irrigation.
The Influence of Hinduism and Buddhism
Hinduism helped to make India's class structure more rigid. This
class structure began when the Aryans, an invading tribe from the
north, conquered large parts of India in the 1500s B.C. The Aryans
introduced the caste system. It divided people into four major groups
and set up strict rules for living. A person was born into a caste and
could not leave it, except in rare cases. A person in one caste could
not eat with anyone in another caste or marry anyone in another
caste.
The Hindu concept of reincarnation reinforced this system. Since
people believed that their status in society was the result of their
behavior in past lives, they felt that they must accept that status. If
they accepted it and lived virtuously, they would be reincarnated in
a higher form in the "next life."
The Hindu religion also played a part in the spread of culture
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Hindu sun god of the Gupta
Empire, 6th-century A.D.
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EXPANDING ZONES OF EXCHANGE AND ENCOUNTER (A.D. 500-1200)
throughout India and beyond. People on religious pilgrimages to other
Indian villages learned about the inhabitants' customs and beliefs.
Hindu missionaries traveled to Southeast Asia and taught the people
about Hinduism. They also encouraged the use of the Sanskrit
language.
Although Buddhism decreased in popularity during the Gupta
Dynasty, it continued to influence the culture of the time. The magnificent temples and monasteries that Gupta architects carved into
the sides of mountains were Buddhist as well as Hindu.
Though fewer in number, Buddhist schools continued to function.
They taught grammar, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and sacred writings to the young people of India.
Hinduism, however, had by far the most important influence on
the people in their daily lives. Most people worshiped the idols of the
Hindu gods. They followed its rules about not eating meat or drinking
alcoholic beverages. They also lived by the rules of the caste system.
Hinduism slowly emerged as the leading religion of India, a position
it still holds today.
The Status of Women Under the Guptas
Women of the Gupta period enjoyed more freedom than they had
in previous dynasties. The wealthier Indian parents taught their
daughters as well as their sons how to read and write. Although no
woman philosopher of Gupta India ever became famous throughout
the world, they did exist. Male intellectuals sometimes mentioned
their ideas in their writings. Indian women often worked as midwives.
(Midwives are women who have been trained to deliver babies.) One
Indian midwife named Rusa wrote a textbook teaching this skill.
Women in Indian society were permitted to own property and engage
in business.
Nonetheless, like Indian women of earlier times, those of the
Gupta Dynasty were subject to their fathers and husbands. When
they were small children, their fathers arranged marriages for them.
The weddings took place when the girls reached their early teens.
The law did not permit widows to remarry or to inherit their husbands' property.
Some widows followed a tradition called sati (also spelled suti and
suttee). They committed suicide by throwing themselves on their husband's funeral pyre. This practice was supposed to ensure that both
husband and wife would experience 35 million years of happiness in
paradise. Historians speculate that many widows considered death
preferable to a life of poverty and servitude. Finally in 1300, the law
denying widows the right to their husbands' property was changed,
and their position improved. But sati continued as a basic practice of
Hinduism. Although outlawed, it may possibly be practiced in some
remote areas of India even today.
India, China, and Byzantium
The Decline of the Gupta Empire
During the 5th century A.D., political conflicts shook the Gupta
Empire. About 450, Huns, a fierce tribe of nomadic warriors from
central Asia, invaded India. (Another name for the invaders was
White Huns.) The Emperor Skandagupta (ruled 455-467) was able
to fight them off, but the effort strained the already weakened empire.
Continued raids by the Huns drained the empire's wealth by disrupting trade with central India. Large numbers of people from north
India began to migrate to other regions. In the mid-6th century, the
empire fell and India once more separated into small kingdoms in
constant conflict with one another.
1.
How did oral history influence the literature
period?
2.
How did the scholars of Gupta India affect the mathematics
miliar with today?
3.
Explain how religion influenced social organization,
turallife in Gupta India.
4.
Indicate why you AGREE or DISAGREE with the following statement:
Indian women enjoyed freedom and opportunity under Gupta rule.
of India during the Gupta
we are fa-
education, and cul-
THE TANG DYNASTY (618-907)
Before the Tang
From 581 to 618, a line of emperors, called the Sui, tried to bring
stability to China. They reinforced the Great Wall to help keep out
nomadic raiders like the Huns and introduced measures to boost
China's economy. One of the most important of these works was the
building ofthe Grand Canal that connected the Huang He to the Huai
and Yangtze rivers. The new waterway improved communications between government centers in northern China and newly developed
areas in the Yangtze Delta.
The Sui emperors tried to make agriculture more profitable by
dividing the land more equally among the peasants. Unfortunately,
their exploitation of the peasants defeated this goal. The second and
last Sui emperor, Yang Ti, forced the peasants to work such long
hours on public projects that they had little time or energy left to
grow their own crops. He also forced them to take part in wars of
expansion against Manchuria, Korea, and Tibet. These wars were
unsuccessful and expensive. To finance his public projects and military campaigns, Yang Ti demanded that all his subjects pay ten years'
taxes in advance.
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EXPANDING ZONES OF EXCHANGE AND ENCOUNTER (A.D. 500-1200)
Outraged, the Chinese people rose against him. When Yang Ti
was assassinated
in 618, a general named Li Yuan took over the
throne and founded the Tang Dynasty.
Early Tang Rule
The Tang emperors ruled more wisely than the Sui emperors had.
They improved the lot of the peasants. Extravagant projects that
drained their subjects' money and strength were avoided. Under the
Tang rulers, the peasants regained the prosperity they had known
during the Han Dynasty.
The Tang rulers were also more successful than the Sui in expanding their empire. At the end oftheir dynasty, they had conquered
Korea and Tibet. The map on this page shows the extent of the Tang
Empire. When the Chinese occupied Korea, they were in a position
to exert a strong influence on their neighbor, Japan. From observing the Chinese in Korea, the Japanese developed a system of
writing and record keeping. They also adopted Chinese methods of
governing.
During this period, Chinese trade revived. Merchants once more
traveled along the Silk Road, exchanging goods, customs, art, and
ideas.
China: The Tang Empire
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India, China, and Byzantium
Pottery camel of the Tang
Dynasty, an artifact for a
noble's tomb and a token of
the important Silk Road
trade
Achievements of the Tang
Tang emperors are most famous for their efficient organization of
the Chinese government. They assigned special departments to supervise the various aspects of government business, such as military
matters, foreign affairs, justice, finance, building, transportation, and
education.
A large bureaucracy was needed to staff these departments.
Therefore, the Tang emperors brought back the Han system of selecting government officials through testing. The importance of appointing highly ethical people to offices of public trust revived interest
in Confucian values. Confucius taught respect for authority, tradition, and scholarship. A difficult civil service examination tested the
candidates' talent and memory. Those who were accepted as government officials were known as "Mandarins."
Since education became an important means of rising in the
world, scholarship and artistic expression flourished. Tang painters
and sculptors developed new forms and styles of expression. Scholars
wrote more encyclopedias and histories than ever before. The era also
produced many fine poets. One of China's greatest poets, Li Bo (or Li
Po), wrote in the 700s. His principle subjects were nature, good living,
and morality. The invention of printing increased the production of
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EXPANDING ZONES OF EXCHANGE AND ENCOUNTER (A.D.
Around A.D.495, a Chinese emperor built
a temple for an lndian monk who had
come to China to preach Buddhism. Because the temple was located in a small
forest on Shao Shi Mountain, it was called
the Shao Un Temple. Thel1loul")tainis
about 400 miles south of Beijing.
Through the centuries, the Shao Un
monks gained a reputation for skill in the
martial arts. These skills included both unarmed combat and the use of sWord,
spear, and other "traditional" weapons.
The monks also learned to move silently
through enemy ranks and to strike with
surprise. H.ow .and vvhen the Shao Un
monks began practicing the martial arts is
unknown. Most Chinese knew nothing
about the Shao Un monks until approximately A.D. 621, when the Tang Dynasty
was being established. EmperorTang Tai
Zong had to fight invaders and those who
opposed his rule. Thirteen Shao Un monks
joined the Tang army and contributed
greatly to the defeat of the emperor's enemies. In gratitude, the emperor granted the
Shao Un warriors special status and allowed the temple to house warrior monks
for protection.
Several hundred years later, during the
Sung Dynasty (960-1270), the reputation
of the Shao Un rose higher. The abbot, or
leader, of the temple invited 18 of the bestknown martial arts masters in the country
to gather at Shao Un. Each master was a
specialist in his own style of fighting. It is
believed that the first Sung emperor was
one of the masters at this gathering.
Knowledge of Shao Un martial arts
was spread to Japan in the 13th century by
two Japanese monks who came to study
at the temple.
500-1200)
Shao Un's popularity and influence on
the martial arts peaked dUringthe Ming
Dynasty (1368-1644). More than 10,000
monks and students entered the Shao Un
ranks during this period. In 1644, the Manchus overthrevvthe MingDynasty. The
new emperor saw the Shao Un Temple as
a threat. Its army of warrior monks helped
Ming loyalists. The Manchus outlawed the
practice of martial arts in the Shao Un
Temple. But the monks practiced secretly
and kept their skills. Discouraged by the
restrictions, a number of monks left the
temple. Some joined other monasteries.
Others established monasteries of their
own. The scattering of the monks spread
knowledge of Shao Un martial arts
throughout China.
In the early 20th century, Shao Un
martial arts declined. This form of fighting
did not fit in with the tactics of modern warfare. In 1928, the temple was almost completely burned down by a local warlord.
Many of the temple's historical records and
martial arts manuscripts were lost. However, enough of the records remained to
guide the revival of the teaching of Shao
Un martial arts. By the 1990s, much of the
temple had been rebuilt. Shaol..in monks
again welcomed individuals who wished to
study with them.
1. How does the history of the Shao Un
Temple illustrate Chinese respect for
tradition?
2.
Explain vvhyyou AGREE or DI.$AGREE Withthis statement: The learning of martial arts skills is useless in
the modern world.
India, China, and Byzantium
books. As a result, literature
people.
became available to greater numbers of
Empress Wu Zhao
One remarkable Tang ruler was a woman named Wu Zhao. She
was the wife of Emperor Kao-Tsung. When he fell ill, the emperor
asked his wife to help him rule the empire. Empress Wu encouraged
agriculture and silk production. She lowered taxes and reduced
the amount of labor that peasants were forced to contribute to
the government. She commissioned scholars and artists to work
for her.
Mter the death of her husband in 683, Wu Zhao governed China
on her own. Many government officials disapproved of Wu because
she was a woman. Even more officials turned against her when she
established civil service examinations for women. In 705, those who
opposed Wu forced her to resign and make her son the ruler. She died
soon after.
The End of the Dynasty
In 907, the Tang Dynasty came to an end. The emperor had lost
power to provincial governors during a long period of decline. The
provinces declared themselves to be independent states. China was
again weak and disunited. As the empire broke up, foreign invaders
conquered and ruled China.
Painting of Tang Dynasty Empress Wu Zhao, shown with her officials
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EXPANDING ZONES OF EXCHANGE AND ENCOUNTER
(A.D. 500-1200)
Complete the following sentences:
1. Efforts of the Sui emperor to make agriculture more profitable failed
because
2. The Tang rulers expanded their empire by
3. Among the educational achievements of the Tang were
4. Steps taken by Empress Wu Zhao to improve China included
5. The Tang Dynasty ended in A.D. 907 when
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE (395-1453)
The Byzantine Empire began as the eastern part of the Roman
Empire. Mter the fall of Rome in 476, the Byzantines kept alive many
Roman ideas about law and government. Roman culture blended with
the existing Greek culture ofthe area. Greek was the official language
and Christianity the official religion. The capital of the empire, Constantinople, became a prosperous trading center. It controlled the water route between the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea.
Byzantium's location exposed it to foreign attack. A number of
groups from farther east in Asia, Eastern Europe, and the Arabian
The Byzantine Empire
The empire
Justinian's
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India, China, and Byzantium
peninsula tried to take over Byzantium. The Byzantines were able to
fight off some, but they lost territory to others over the years.
Byzantium's location also made it a buffer zone between Western
Europe and the Middle East. In protecting their own empire, the Byzantines shielded Western nations from invasion by Arabs and Turks.
Had it not been for Byzantium, the major religion of Europe might
have been Islam instead of Christianity.
The Growth of the Empire
The Byzantine emperors were dictators. They ruled with the support of a well-trained army and navy and an efficient system of secret
police and spies. The emperors controlled not only the government
but also the Eastern Christian Church. Later it came to be known as
the Eastern Orthodox Church. Several Byzantine emperors were
women.
ConqueringTerritory. Early Byzantine emperors tried to increase the size of their empire. They fought the Germanic tribes who
held lands that had been part of the old Roman Empire. Before Emperor Justinian, who ruled from 527 to 565, no one had succeeded in
adding much territory to the empire. Justinian's armies managed to
conquer many lands around the Mediterranean Sea. At the end of
Justinian's rule, the empire included Italy, southern Spain, the Balkans, western Asia, and areas of North Mrica. (The Balkans are the
Mosaic of Emperor Justinian
of Byzantium,
surrounded
by his court
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EXPANDING ZONES OF EXCHANGE AND ENCOUNTER (A.D. 500-1200)
present-day
countries of Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina,
Bulgaria,
Macedonia, Greece, part of Turkey, and parts of Croatia, Slovenia,
Serbia, and Yugoslavia.) Justinian's conquests opened up the empire
to many new enemies. To defend against these enemies, Justinian
ordered forts to be put up throughout the empire.
Invasions From All Sides. The leaders who followed Justinian
could not keep the empire together. His military campaigns and
building programs had left little money in the treasury. The army
became too weak to fight off invaders.
Movements of the same peoples who had destroyed the Western
Roman Empire now threatened the Byzantine Empire. The Visigoths
took over southern Spain. The Lombards swarmed into most ofItaly.
The Arabs gained possession of Egypt, North Mrica, Syria, and Israel.
The Serbs won the Balkans. The Turks conquered western Asia. At
last, the empire included only Asia Minor (Turkey), southern Italy,
and Greece.
Heraclius. The Emperor Heraclius (ruled 610-641) led the Byzantine army against the Persians and the Slavs. Mter driving off the
invaders, Heraclius tried to strengthen the empire by organizing it
into military districts. A general governed each district and recruited
an army from the local peasants. As payment for serving in the army,
the government gave the peasants land to farm. This arrangement
provided economic benefits to the peasants and assured the empire
of a loyal, inexpensive army. This system was especially successful in
the section of the Balkans that remained part of the Byzantine Empire. The Balkan peasants fought bravely to defend their farms from
invaders.
A New Weapon. The Arabs posed the most serious threat to Byzantium. They conquered Persia and took the Holy Land and Egypt
from the Byzantines. Once the Arabs gained control of large areas
Illustrated
history of Byzantium
showing Greek fire used against an enemy boat
India, China, and Byzantium
along the Mediterranean Sea, they built a huge navy. This enabled
them to threaten Constantinople by both land and sea. Luckily, Emperor Leo III (ruled 717-741), like Heraclius, was a brilliant general.
With the aid of the Byzantine invention, Greek fire, Leo defeated the
Arabs in 717 at Constantinople. (Greek fire is thought to have been
a mixture of oil, resin, and sulfur. The heated mixture was pumped
through a tube. As the mixture came out of the tube, it was set on
fire and aimed at enemy ships or other targets. It could not be put
out with water.)
After this victory, the Byzantines continued to fend off Arab advances. By their successful resistance to all invaders, the Byzantines
shielded Western Europe from invaders for 900 years.
Renewed Strength and Trade. About the year 1000, Byzantium became strong again. Able leaders added territory to the empire.
The Byzantines created fine art and constructed great buildings. Constantinople grew in importance as a commercial center for Europe,
Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. The silks, brocades, carpets, and
other luxury items manufactured in Byzantium were in great demand
in foreign markets. Other Mediterranean trading cities, particularly
Venice, were envious.
Setbacks for the Empire
In the 1070s, the Seljuk Turks came out of Asia and stepped up
their attacks on the Byzantines. The Turks were Muslims. After
many years of defending the empire, the Byzantine emperor asked
the pope in Rome for help against the Turks and other invaders. The
pope responded by persuading various rulers in Europe to send soldiers to the Holy Land. (The Holy Land was the area now made up
of Israel, Lebanon, and part of Syria.) The Turks had held the area
for some 25 years. Called Crusaders, the European soldiers began
arriving in the eastern Mediterranean area around 1096. The wars
between Christians and Muslims went on for years.
In 1204, at the urging of Venice and against the wishes of the
pope, the Crusaders captured Constantinople instead of fighting the
Turks. The city-state of Venice in northern Italy wanted to control
the trading routes to the Middle East.
The Byzantines won back their city in 1261, but they could not
regain their former strength. Another group of Turks, called Ottomans, started raiding communities around Constantinople. Greece
fell and so did most of Asia Minor. Finally, in 1453, the Ottomans
captured Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire, which had existed
for nearly 1,000 years, came to an end.
The Orthodox Christian Church
Early in Byzantine history, the Western and Eastern branches of
the Christian Church began to grow away from each other. When
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EXPANDING ZONES OF EXCHANGE AND ENCOUNTER (A.D. 500-1200)
Time Line
Year
Dates and Events
A.D.
401
455-567:
A.D.
A.D.
A.D.
A.D.
A.D.
A.D.
A.D.
A.D.
A.D.
A.D.
A.D.
A.D.
A.D.
A.D.
Rule of Skandagupta, invasions by White Huns, fall of Gupta
Empire
476: Fall of Rome makes Byzantine Empire caretaker of Greek and Roman
culture
495: Introduction of Buddhism into China
527-565: Emperor Justinian expands Byzantine Empire to Spain, Italy,
Balkans, western Asia, and North Africa; codifies Roman law
into Justinian Code, basis of many legal systems today
565-610: Invasion of Byzantine Empire by Visigoths and Slavs (from
Russia and Balkans)
581: Beginning of 40-year Sui Dynasty in China; construction of Grand
Canal waterway
610-641: Reign of Byzantine Emperor Heraclius; repels invading Persians
and Slavs
618: Beginning of 300-year Tang Dynasty
683-705: Wu Zhao, widow of Tang emperor Kao-Tsung, rules China
717: Defeat of Arabs invading Byzantine Empire by Emperor Leo III at
Constantinople
8608: Byzantine missionaries to Moravia invent Cyrillic (Slavic) alphabet
907: End of Tang Dynasty
920-1270: Sung Dynasty
988: Russian ruler Vladimir leads his people to convert to Eastern
Orthodox Christianity
1054: Great Schism divides Christianity into Roman Catholic and Eastern
Orthodox churches
10708: Increased attacks on Byzantine Empire by Seljuk (Muslim) Turks
1096: Byzantine emperor initiates First Crusade
12008: Russia cut off from West by Mongolian invasions
1204: Crusaders capture Constantinople
1261-1453: Byzantines win back Constantinople; empire finally falls to
invading Ottoman Turks
India, China, and Byzantium
Constantine decided to rule the Roman Empire from Constantinople,
he weakened royal power in the western part of the empire. The people in the West felt that their Church leaders were more powerful
than the governors who represented the emperor there. As time went
on, Western Church leaders claimed to have more authority than the
emperor himself. During the 4th century, Ambrose, the bishop of the
city of Milan in northern Italy, had a dispute with the Byzantine
emperor, Theodosius, over this issue of primacy. Ambrose claimed
that Church leaders were above kings because they were responsible
for saving the souls of everyone, kings as well as commoners.
Byzantine emperors, on the other hand, assumed that they had
the right to rule the Church as well as the state. They nominated the
patriarch of Constantinople, who was the highest Eastern religious
official. When Church leaders disagreed about religious beliefs, the
emperor gathered them together in a council to resolve the problem.
The emperor frequently headed the council himself.
In 1054, rivalry over territory and a dispute about religious belief
finally split the Eastern and Western branches of the Christian
Church. This split is called the Great Schism. The Western branch
came to be called the Roman Catholic Church. The Eastern branch is
known as the Eastern Orthodox Church. (The Greek Orthodox and
Russian Orthodox churches came along later.)
Contributing to the East- West dispute were the differences over
the use of icons in worship. Icons are painted images of Jesus, Mary,
and saints. These pictures help worshipers understand religious
teachings. Leaders of the Eastern Orthodox Church felt that praying
to icons was a form of idolatry and banned it. The icons were to be
destroyed. Emperor Leo III agreed. But the ban threatened to disrupt
Byzantine society. Church leaders eventually backed down and let
the icons be put in churches and homes. The leaders of the Roman
Catholic Church believed that the icons gave people a deeper understanding of Christian ideals. They encouraged the use of painted
images.
Byzantine Monasticism
The emperors and wealthy people of Byzantium donated money
to support monasteries and nunneries, which were tax-free. Monasteries and nunneries are religious communities located in out-of-the
way places. Individuals joined the communities to devote themselves
to serving God. Men were called monks, women, nuns.
The monks and nuns who entered the monasteries and nunneries
lived lives of moderation and engaged in acts of charity. They ran
hospitals, provided refuges for victims of oppression and crime, and
gave food and clothing to the poor.
Some monks and nuns became missionaries. They traveled to the
Balkans and Russia to persuade the inhabitants to become Chris-
173
174
EXPANDING ZONES OF EXCHANGE AND ENCOUNTER
(A.D. 500-1200)
tians. Because of these missionaries, the Eastern Orthodox Church
is the major Christian church in Russia and other Eastern European
countries.
The Cultural Achievements of Byzantium
Because of the closeness of the Byzantine church and state, religion strongly influenced Byzantine culture. The Church set rules for
marriage and family relations. During battles, holy pictures were carried like flags before the imperial troops.
Art. Religious themes dominated literature and art. Ordinary
people were just as interested as Church officials in religious questions. They joined in arguments about the divine nature of Christ and
whether or not it was right to worship images of holy people. Welleducated people read essays about Church doctrine. The less scholarly read stories about the lives of the saints.
Architecture.
Some of the most beautiful Byzantine buildings
were churches. The Hagia Sophia, which means Holy Wisdom, was
one of the churches built during Justinian's reign. The architects who
designed it blended Eastern and Western styles by placing a Persian
dome on a rectangular Roman base. When the Muslims took over
Constantinople, they admired the Hagia Sophia so much that they
used it for a mosque. (Today, it is a national museum.)
Scholarship.
Not all Byzantine achievements were religious in
nature. This period produced many historians. The empire's fine universities and libraries protected Greco-Roman literature. Scholars
wrote commentaries on the works of classical Greek and Roman
writers.
Law. The Emperor Justinian helped to preserve Roman law for
future cultures. He asked officials to gather together all the laws of
Rome and write them down so that they could be easily understood.
The resulting collection of laws is known as the Code of Justinian.
This code influenced the legal systems of many present-day European
and Latin American countries.
Weapons. The Byzantines made few advances in technology.
Their successes in this field consisted mainly of weapons and other
devices of war. They had the most advanced siege machines of the
time. Using a kind of catapult called the mangon, they hurled heavy
stones over the ramparts of a besieged city. They bored holes through
fortress walls with large, metal-tipped drills. Their battering rams
had somewhat the same effect as modern-day armored tanks. The
rams were attached to wheeled towers that had small forts on top.
The forts protected the soldiers as they tried to batter down the city
gate. Bridges carried by ships allowed soldiers to cross moats. (A moat
is a deep, water-filled ditch surrounding a castle.) Once the soldiers
got across the moat, the bridges were hoisted to the top of the fortress
walls so that the men could enter the city.
India, China, and Byzantium
The most famous Byzantine invention was Greek fire. It is not
surprising that the Byzantines used their inventiveness to create
weapons. They were constantly defending their empire against
invaders.
Byzantine Influence on Russia and Eastern Europe
In the mid-860s, the Byzantine emperor sent two missionaries to
a Slavic people called the Moravians. (Moravia is a part of the present-day Czech Republic.) The missionaries, Cyril and Methodius,
used their knowledge of the Slavic language to invent an alphabet for
the Slavs. Although the Moravians and their neighbors eventually
joined the Roman Catholic Church rather than the Eastern Orthodox
Church, they adopted the alphabet. It is called Cyrillic after Cyril,
who developed it. Russians, Bulgarians, and Serbs still use this alphabet today.
In 860, the Byzantines successfully turned back a Russian attack
on Constantinople. For 200 years after that, the two powers remained
hostile to each other. Gradually, however, the Byzantines and Russians became trading partners. As the two peoples grew to know each
other, many Russians became Christians. Finally, in 988, the Russian
Kievan Russia and the Byzantine Empire
175
176
EXPANDING ZONES OF EXCHANGE AND ENCOUNTER (A.D. 500-1200)
king, Vladimir, and all his people converted to Christianity as represented by the Eastern Orthodox Church.
The Russia of that time is known as Kievan Russia because its
capital was Kiev. Becoming wealthy through trade with Byzantium,
Kievan Russia began to make contact with Western Europe. Members
of the Russian royal family married members of the royal families of
Sweden and France. Russian leaders made alliances with Germanic
kings. A lively trade developed between Russia and the countries of
the West.
Russian contact with the West was cut off during the 13th century. During that period, the Mongols conquered Kievan Russia. No
longer open to Western influence, Russians clung to the aspects of
culture that they had adopted from the Byzantines. They remained
Eastern Orthodox Christians. Their form of government continued to
resemble that of Byzantium.
Building an empire involves more than conquering many territories. It requires skill in governing large populations. Two important
methods of doing this are the establishment of a strong bond among
the people through a common religion or philosophy and setting up
an efficient bureaucracy. Chapter 10 describes how the Muslims of
the Middle East employed these methods in ruling their vast empire.
1.
Identify a Byzantine achievement in each of the following areas: art and
architecture, scholarship and literature, law, military technology.
2.
Who were Cyril and Methodius? How did their work affect the cultures
of Eastern Europe?
3.
How did the Mongols affect Kievan Russia?
Multiple Choice
'i
1.
The leaders of the Byzantine, Gupta,
and Tang empires used several
methods to rule their empires. These
methods included
1. dividing the empire into military
districts
2. using religion to support their
authority
3. encouraging
the acceptance of
Confucian beliefs
4. all of the above.
2.
During the Gupta Empire, Indian
customs and culture were spread
throughout
Southeast
Asia and
China by
1. scholars who studied at the Indian universities and took home
new ideas and ways of living
2. Indian workers who traveled to
different areas to find work
3. traders who took new ideas and
ways of living to their homes in
China and Southeast Asia
India, China, and Byzantium
3. conflict over whether the pope or
the emperor was the head of the
Church
4. the Byzantine Church leaders introducing Latin into the prayers.
4. military conquest of China and
Southeast Asia by the armies of
the Gupta emperors.
3.
The mathematical
concepts of pi,
zero, and the decimal system all originated under the
1.
2.
3.
4.
4.
Han Dynasty
Gupta Dynasty
Byzantine Empire
Ottoman Empire.
An example
would be
of cultural
4. the Byzantine Empire
the Cyrillic alphabet.
5.
8. The Byzantines protected Western
Europe from most of the attacks of
the
1.
2.
3.
4.
diffusion
1. the Chinese adopting Indian customs and Sanskrit writing
2. the Buddhists adopting the Hindu
caste system
3. the Tang following Sui agricultural methods
9.
adopting
10.
In order to insure that government
officials were honest and well educated, the Tang emperors relied on a
civil service examination that was
based on
7.
1. Muslim conquest of Rome
2. Western Church leaders banning
the use of icons and images
In the 13th century, the Mongols
conquered Russia. Select the answer
that correctly lists one activity that
ended and one that continued in
Russia under the Mongols.
2. Trade with the West was halted,
but the practice of Eastern Orthodox Christianity continued.
3. Russian nobles no longer read
Greek Epic poetry, but they continued to study Hinduism.
4. Byzantine forms of cultural and
governmental
practices
were
banned, but the Cyrillic alphabet
continued to be used.
The Empress Wu Zhao was both remarkable and unique because she
1. instituted civil service examinations for women
The Christian Church, though divided into Western and Eastern
branches,
remained
unified until
1054. Reasons for the break included
Kiev
Constantinople
Venice
none of the above.
1. The practice of Eastern Orthodox
Christianity was forbidden, but
trade continued with the West.
3. the principles of Legalism
4. the Hippocratic Oath.
2. raised the peasants' taxes
3. was the only woman to hold the
title empress and rule China
4. conquered other lands.
Japanese
Arabs
Germanic tribes
Indian nomads.
One of the early capitals of Russia
was
1.
2.
3.
4.
1. Confucian values
2. the Twelve Tables
6.
177
11.
According to the time line on page
172, which of the following periods
was important to the growth of the
Byzantine Empire?
1. A.D. 527-565
2. A.D. 610-641
3. A.D. 860s
4. all of the above.
178
12.
EXPANDING ZONES OF EXCHANGE AND ENCOUNTER (A.D. 500-1200)
Compare the maps on pages 159 and
164 and select the most accurate
statement about the Gupta and Tang
empires.
1. Both empires were protected
defensive walls.
by
2. Major river systems aided transportation and communication in
both empires.
3. Both empires were far from the
sea.
4. The empires were separated
the Thar Desert.
Thematic
1.
2.
by
Essays
The Gupta, Tang, and Byzantine cultures
influenced
future
cultures.
Task: Select two examples from Indian, Chinese, and Middle Eastern
cultures and describe how they affected future cultures.
Task: Discuss the role that Byzantium
played as the protector and spreader
of Greek and Roman culture.
Document-Based
According to this reading, what is expected of a woman in a household?
2.
A description of the Greek family:
" . . . Heaven so made their bodies, and
set their lives, as to render man strong
to endure cold and heat, journeying
and warfare, so laying on him the
works of the field; but to woman. . . so
laying, I think, on her the works ofthe
house. . . Those who have work indoors will be under you; and you will
take charge of everything that is
brought into the house. . ."
What views are expressed in this
reading about how tasks were divided between men and women and what these
tasks are?
3. After viewing the picture on page 167,
what can you say about the power and
importance of Empress Wu Zhao?
Questions
Use the documents and your knowledge of
Global History and Geography to answer
the questions.
1.
house and belittled her husband, they
shall throw that woman into the
water."
From the Babylonian
murabi:
Code of Ham-
If she [a wife] has not been a careful
her
mistress, . .. [has] neglected
Document-Based
Essay
Task: Use information in the documents
and your knowledge of Global History and
Geography to compare and contrast the
status of women in China to India, Rome,
or Greece. Include in your answer the nature of the cultures in which the women
lived.
,