Download Chapter 35: Unrest in Europe, 1755 A.D.

CHAPTER
35
Unrest in
Europe
1755 A . D . –1875 A . D .
Napoleon Bonaparte
An urn from
Napoleon’s
time
1804
Napoleon
crowned
560
1814
Congress of
Vienna meets
UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES
1815
Napoleon
defeated
1848
Universal male
suffrage begins
to spread
1867
Dual monarchy
of AustriaHungary
Chapter Focus
Read to Discover
• How Napoleon influenced France and formed the Grand
Empire.
• How the Congress of Vienna established a balance of
power and brought peace to Europe.
• How liberals, nationalists, and socialists led revolutions
that threatened the Congress System.
• What effects nationalism had on Italy, Germany, and Austria.
Terms to Learn
People to Know
Places to Locate
plebiscite
abdicate
proletariat
Napoleon
Bonaparte
Karl Marx
Waterloo
Vienna
Sardinia
Chapter Overview
Visit the Human Heritage Web site
at humanheritage.glencoe.com
and click on Chapter 35—
Chapter Overviews to preview
this chapter.
Why It’s Important
In the early 1800s, Napoleon occupied the
center of the European stage. He came closer than anyone else
to unifying Europe politically. In so doing, he spread revolutionary ideas. After his downfall, there was a return to the old
order. However, the ideas of the Napoleonic (nuh pō lē ahn’ ik)
era had taken hold, and from 1820 to 1848, revolutions took
place in country after country. The years after 1848 saw the
breakup of the old order and the formation of new nations.
SECTION 1 The Age of Napoleon
By 1799, France had experienced ten years of revolution and
war. The people longed for a return to peace and order. They
were ready for a strong leader to take charge. It was during this
time that Napoleon rose to power. His rule started a chain of
events that affected not only France, but all of Europe.
Napoleon
When the French Revolution began, Napoleon
Bonaparte, who had come to France from Corsica (kōr’ si kuh),
was a lieutenant in the French army. By the time he was 24 years
old, he had become a general. He was not satisfied, however. He
wanted more power.
In 1796, Napoleon was chosen to lead French troops into
Italy. There, the French defeated the Austrians, who ruled Italy at
CHAPTER 35 UNREST IN EUROPE
561
that time. As a result of this victory, France acquired Belgium
from Austria. France also acquired hundreds of art treasures
from Italy, which were placed in the Louvre (lūv), the French
national museum.
Two years later, Napoleon sailed for Egypt, where British
French Law France
enforced the Napoleonic
forces were stationed. He won a great land victory there, but the
Code in its European
British fleet destroyed the French fleet. Nevertheless, the French
empire and its North
succeeded in establishing their influence in Egypt. Another
American colonies. Today,
important outcome of the French campaign was that soldiers
Louisiana, once part of
accompanying Napoleon discovered the Rosetta Stone.
France’s lands in America,
is the only state with laws
Meanwhile, Austria, Russia, and Great Britain defeated
based on the Napoleonic
French forces in Europe. When Napoleon learned of this, he saw
Code.
his chance to gain more power. He left his troops in Egypt and
returned to Paris. There, he and two members of the Directory
plotted to take over the government. On November 9, 1799, they
put their plan into effect and met with success.
Napoleon set up a new government called the Consulate
(kon’ suh luht). He placed himself at its head and took the title of
First Consul. By this time, Russia was no longer at war with
Student Web Activity
Visit the Human Heritage Web site at France. However, Austria and Great Britain were. In 1801,
Napoleon led French forces to victory over Austria. In 1802, he
humanheritage.glencoe.com
arranged a peace treaty with Great Britain.
and click on Chapter 35—
Student Web Activities to find
out more about Napoleon.
Example of Napoleonic
Dress
562
Affairs at Home
Once France was at peace, Napoleon
turned his attention to affairs at home. The Directory had been
weak and in debt. Napoleon set out to make the Consulate
strong and rich. He took away the people’s right to choose their
own local officials and gave that power to the national government. He prohibited local governments from collecting taxes and
assigned all tax collection to the national government. Because
Napoleon’s system was better organized, the French government
was able to collect more taxes. In a few years, France’s debt was
paid, and its economy had improved. Napoleon also used some
of the tax money to set up a system of public education.
Napoleon also set to work to bring order to the French legal
system. The French Revolution had swept away most laws and
the different revolutionary governments had never been able to
agree on new ones. As a result, different laws were followed in
different parts of the country. To correct this, Napoleon appointed a committee of lawyers and told them to write a new code of
law for the whole country. The laws they wrote were divided
into five parts and were called the Napoleonic Code.
The Napoleonic Code preserved the most important rights
won in the French Revolution. Serfdom was ended. People were
made equal before the law. Anyone charged with a crime was
guaranteed a public trial by jury. Freedom of religion was also
guaranteed. However, some rights the people had won in the
revolution were taken away. No one was allowed to criticize the
UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES
national government. There was no freedom of speech or of the
press. A large police force kept watch on anyone suspected of
being against Napoleon. Many people were put in jail.
Napoleon tried to make both Paris and France more beautiful. He had a huge marble arch, called the Arc de Triomphe (ahrk
deh trē ahmf’), built as a monument to his campaigns. He named
Jacques-Louis David as court painter. David designed furniture
that looked like that of ancient Greece and Rome. Soon, the
“Empire” style spread throughout Europe. This style affected
clothes as well as furniture. Women wore narrow white cotton or
muslin dresses with low square necklines and short puffed
sleeves. They also fixed their hair like the women of ancient
Rome.
Napoleon also worked to improve transportation. Under his
direction, French workers dug canals and improved roads. Fourteen new bridges were built across the Seine River, which runs
through Paris.
Because Napoleon brought peace and order, he was very
popular. In 1802, he asked the people to elect him First Consul
for life. They did so in a plebiscite (pleb’ uh sı̄t), or popular vote.
Two years later, the French made Napoleon emperor of France.
His coronation was held in the Notre Dame (nō’ truh dahm)
Cathedral. The Pope came from Rome for the crowning but did
not have a chance to place the crown on Napoleon’s head.
Instead, Napoleon took the crown from the Pope’s hands and
crowned himself.
The Grand Empire
Being emperor of France was not
enough for Napoleon. He wanted to build a Grand Empire that
would take the place of the Holy Roman Empire. He had the
advantage of an army whose soldiers worshiped their emperor
and whose officers were chosen because they were able in battle,
not just because they were aristocrats.
In 1803, Great Britain, threatened by Napoleon’s actions,
declared war on France. Great Britain and its allies, however,
were not able to stop Napoleon and his soldiers. In 1805,
Napoleon had himself crowned king of Italy. In 1806, he formed
the Confederation (kuhn fed uhr ā’ shuhn) of the Rhine, which
consisted of a group of conquered German states. In 1808, he
invaded Spain and Portugal. The following year, he made the
Papal States part of France and put the Pope in prison. France’s
boundaries now included much of Europe.
The countries in Napoleon’s Grand Empire were strongly
influenced by France. French citizens, including relatives of
Napoleon, took over the government of many conquered areas.
The French rulers made the Napoleonic Code law. Thus,
Napoleon’s conquests helped spread the ideas of the French Revolution throughout Europe.
Photograph of Arc de
Triomphe
Reading Check
What is a
plebiscite?
Painting of a Napoleonic
Officer
CHAPTER 35 UNREST IN EUROPE
563
MAP STUDY
PLACES AND
REGIONS Napoleon
had power over most of
the European continent
in 1812. What bodies of
water helped to protect
Great Britain from
Napoleon’s armies?
Only Great Britain and Russia remained undefeated by
Napoleon. Since the French could not defeat the British navy,
Napoleon tried to obtain victory in a different way. He forbade
the countries in his empire to trade with Great Britain, which he
called a “nation of shopkeepers.” His order, however, was hard
to enforce, and it proved unsuccessful.
Napoleon then decided to take on Russia. He organized a
Grand Army of about 600,000 soldiers of different nationalities. It
was the largest army the world had yet seen. In the summer of
1812, the Grand Army invaded Russia. Except for one battle,
though, the Russians did not fight. Instead, they retreated,
drawing the French deeper into Russia. As the Russians
retreated, they burned their villages and food supplies, leaving
nothing for the advancing French. This tactic is called a scorchedearth policy.
Napoleonic Europe
564
UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES
In September, Napoleon reached Moscow, which had been
abandoned by the Russians. Shortly after the French arrived, the
city caught fire and three fourths of it was destroyed. The French
army now had neither food nor shelter. Napoleon sent several
peace proposals to the Russians, which they ignored. He finally
gave the order to withdraw. By then the bitter Russian winter
had started. Hundreds of thousands of French soldiers froze to
death as temperatures fell to 40 degrees below zero. Thousands
more died from disease and lack of food. In the end, fewer than
100,000 soldiers made it back to France.
Napoleon quickly raised another army, but the new soldiers
were not well trained. They were defeated by the allied forces of
Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain. This was the first time
the four countries had joined together to fight Napoleon.
In 1814, the allies took Paris, and Napoleon was forced to
abdicate (ab’ duh kāt), or give up the throne. He was sent into
exile to the small island of Elba off the coast of Italy. He managed to
escape, however, and gathered together enough troops to invade
France. For 100 days, Napoleon again reigned as emperor. The
allies, under the British leadership of the Duke of Wellington,
finally defeated him in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo. This time,
Napoleon was sent to the island of St. Helena (huh lē’ nuh) off
the west coast of Africa, where he died in 1821.
Section 1 Assessment
1. Define: plebiscite, scorched-earth policy, abdicate.
2. What was the Grand Empire?
3. Why did Napoleon’s invasion of Russia
fail?
Reading Check
How did the
Russians use a
scorched-earth policy
to defeat the French?
Reading Check
Where did
Napoleon go when
he was forced to
abdicate his throne?
Graphic Organizer Activity
5. Draw this diagram, and use it to
summarize Napoleon's accomplishments in the areas of government, education, law, transportation, and the arts.
Government
Critical Thinking
4. Understanding Cause and Effect
How did weaknesses of government
under the Directory help pave the way
for the rise of Napoleon?
Education
Law
Accomplishments
The Arts
Transportation
SECTION 2 Revolution and Reform
After Napoleon’s defeat, representatives from Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain met in Vienna (vē en’ uh) to decide
what to do about France and the rest of Europe. Although the
settlement they agreed upon brought peace to Europe for a time,
it also set the stage for revolution in many countries and reform
in others.
CHAPTER 35 UNREST IN EUROPE
565
The Congress of Vienna
Painting of Metternich
Reading Check
Why did the
Congress of Vienna
want to achieve a
balance of power?
The Congress of Vienna was
sometimes called the “Waltzing Congress.” This was because the
representatives spent much of their time at dinners, dances, and
fox hunts. However, decisions were made by a few leaders. They
included Prince Klemens von Metternich (met’ uhr nik), the
Austrian foreign minister; Czar Alexander I of Russia; King
Frederick William III of Prussia; and Viscount Castlereagh (vı̄ ’
kownt kas’ uhl rā), the British foreign secretary. Charles-Maurice
de Talleyrand (tal’ ē ran) decided matters for France.
The leaders did not want to punish France too harshly. At
the same time, they wanted to build a peaceful and stable
Europe. They believed the best way to do this was by establishing
a balance of power, or equal strength among countries. They
hoped that a balance of power would prevent any single country
from starting another war.
To accomplish this, the leaders divided Napoleon’s Grand
Empire. Russia got Finland and most of Poland. Sweden got
Norway. Austria got part of northern Italy. Great Britain got the
islands of Malta (mahl’ tuh) and Ceylon (sā lahn’), as well as
the Dutch Cape Colony in South Africa. Belgium and Holland
were made into a single nation. In addition, the 39 German states
were combined into a loose confederation headed by Austria.
The leaders of the Congress of Vienna were against democracy. Hoping to crush revolutionary ideas, they brought back
divine-right monarchy. They had already put Louis XVIII,
younger brother of Louis XVI, on the French throne. Now, they
brought back the monarchy in Spain and Portugal. The Pope was
again made ruler of the Papal States.
Political Movements
Reading Check
What changes
did the liberals
support?
Reading Check
Why did the
nationalists oppose
the Congress System?
566
The balance of power in Europe
was maintained for a number of years. However, the revolutionary ideas that had been spread by Napoleon’s Grand Empire did
not die. Several groups were against the Congress System, or the
political plan and division of Europe set up by the Congress of
Vienna.
One group was the liberals. They wanted political reform
based on the ideals of the French Revolution. These included
individual freedom, equal rights under the law, and freedom of
thought and religion. Most liberals were members of the middle
class. They also wanted changes that would improve their own
lives. Among these changes were voting rights for landowners
and the protection of private property. Some liberals wanted a
constitutional monarchy. Others wanted a republic. The liberals
were strongest in Great Britain and France.
Another group that was against the Congress System was the
nationalists (nash’ uh nuh lists). They wanted political
independence for areas where people shared the same language,
customs, and history. The Congress of Vienna had paid no
UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES
Comparing
Historical Maps
A comparison of historical maps
can reveal the changes that occur in the
political features of an area over time.
Look at the map on page 564. Now,
look at the map below. Note that both
show about the same area, but at different times. The map on page 564 shows
Europe’s political divisions during
Napoleon’s rule. The map below shows
Europe after the Congress of Vienna.
To compare historical maps, first
look at both maps to make sure the
same region is being illustrated. Then,
study the boundaries and note any
changes. Study also the names of the
countries to see if they have changed.
For example,
note that the
Grand Duchy of
Warsaw was subject to Napoleon.
After the Congress of Vienna, however,
both its boundaries and its name changed.
Compare both maps and answer the
following questions.
Map Practice
1. How was the French Empire divided
after the Congress of Vienna?
2. What countries were not directly
affected by either Napoleon’s rule
or the Congress of Vienna?
Europe After the Congress of Vienna
567
Reading Check
How did the
socialists feel about
private property?
Reading Check
Who were the
utopian socialists?
What did Karl Marx
expect the proletariat
to do?
Reading Check
What did Marx
believe would happen to government
under communism?
Karl Marx
568
attention to nationalist feelings when it divided the Grand Empire.
For example, the Belgians did not want to be part of Holland.
The northern Italians did not want to be ruled by Austria.
A third group that was against the Congress System was the
socialists. They wanted to end private ownership of land and
factories. They believed the state, or the people as a whole,
should own all means of production. In this way, the socialists
believed, everyone would be treated fairly and the workers’ lives
would improve.
Some socialists tried to set up ideal communities based on
economic cooperation. They thought these communities would
show that theirs was a better way of life. Such socialists were
known as utopian socialists (yū tō’ pē uhn sō’shuh lists).
Other socialists believed the only way to bring about reform
was by revolution. One such socialist was Karl Marx, a German.
He believed the proletariat (prō luh tār ’ ē uht), or industrial
working class, would rise up and take power. “The workers have
nothing to lose . . . but their chains,” he wrote in his book The
Communist Manifesto (kahm’ yū nist man uh fes’ tō). “They have a
world to gain. Workers of the world, unite!”
Marx believed that after the workers’ revolution, there
would be no hunger or poverty. Everyone would become equal.
Governments would not even be needed. People would work
because they wanted to give something to society. In return, they
would be able to develop their own interests and talents. Marx
called his kind of socialism communism (kahm’ yu¯ niz uhm).
He believed the workers’ revolution would be led by his new
Communist party.
An Era of Revolution
Beginning in 1820, liberals,
nationalists, and socialists led revolutions against the Congress
System. The earliest of these took place in Spain, Portugal, Italy,
and Russia. They all failed. However, Greek nationalists were
given hope by these attempts. In 1821, they rebelled against the
Ottoman Empire. After eight years of fighting, Greece gained its
independence.
In 1830, there was another revolution in France. After Louis
XVIII died, his brother Charles X had taken the throne. He
wanted to bring back the Old Regime. Just a few weeks after
being crowned, Charles did away with the National Assembly.
He took the right to vote away from the middle class and
returned control of the schools to the Roman Catholic Church. In
response to Charles’s actions, middle-class liberals, helped by
students and unemployed workers, overthrew the government.
After three days of fighting, Charles X fled.
The July Revolution, as it was called, was a victory for the
middle class. Members of this class, unlike members of the
working class, wanted a constitutional monarchy rather than a
UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES
Universal Suffrage
English author and teacher Mary
Wollstonecraft (left) believed all people should vote,
regardless of gender. In 1792, she published a widely
read book defending the rights of women. Her book
helped spark the start of the woman’s suffrage movement, which eventually made it possible for Margaret
Thatcher (right) to become Great Britain’s first female
Prime Minister. She held
the office from 1979 to
1990. What reforms
helped increase suffrage in Great Britain
in the 1830s?
republic. So, they gave the throne to Charles X’s cousin, LouisPhilippe (lū’ ē fi lēp’). Under Louis-Philippe’s rule, the number of
people who could vote increased. However, of the middle class,
only its richest members could vote. This angered other members
of the middle class. Working-class people were also angry. They
had wanted not only a republic but also universal male suffrage
(suhf’ rij), or the right of all adult males to vote.
News of the July Revolution touched off rebellions in other
countries. In 1831, Belgian nationalists won independence from
Holland. The Poles fought against Russia but were defeated.
Uprisings in several German and Italian states also were put
down and ended quickly.
In Great Britain, however, liberal reforms were made by
gradual change instead of revolution. In 1832, the British government passed a law that lowered the amount of land a man had to
own in order to vote. This increased by one half the number of
voters. It also gave the new industrial towns more representation
in Parliament. As a result, the British middle class had more say
in the government.
Reforms also helped the working class. Labor unions gained
the right to strike, or stop work, in order to obtain shorter hours,
Reading Check
What group
fought for universal
male suffrage in
France?
Reading Check
Why did workers want the right to
strike?
CHAPTER 35 UNREST IN EUROPE
569
higher wages, and better working conditions. By 1890, workingclass males also obtained the right to vote.
Reading Check
What was the
purpose of the
national workshops,
and why did they
fail?
Painting of Louis-Napoleon
570
The Revolutions of 1848
In 1848, another series of revolutions broke out. All over Europe, governments were overthrown. Once again, the rebellion started in France.
Louis-Philippe had tried to be a “citizen-king.” He walked
through the streets of Paris without any servants to show that he
was a bourgeois rather than an aristocrat. He wore a frock coat
and trousers like the men of the middle class. He was very rich
himself, however, and his government served only the rich.
Industrial workers and middle-class liberals became increasingly
unhappy. At the same time, the economy was bad throughout
Europe, including France. Many people did not have jobs. Then,
in 1845 and 1846, the potato and wheat crops failed. There was
not enough food to feed everyone.
In February of 1848, riots broke out in the streets of Paris.
Louis-Philippe fled, and the revolutionary leaders declared the
Second French Republic. They set up a temporary government to
rule until a new National Assembly could be elected. Louis Blanc
(lū ē blahnk), a socialist, was one of the leaders. He persuaded
the other leaders to set up national workshops, or factories run
by the workers but paid for by the government. The national
workshops provided jobs for thousands of people. However, the
number of people out of work grew faster than jobs could be
created. Before long, the French government was supporting over
100,000 people.
When the new National Assembly was finally elected in
April, it did away with the workshops. The workers revolted,
fighting violently for three days. They were defeated by the army,
but not before over 10,000 people were killed.
The National Assembly then drew up a constitution. It called
for a strong president to be elected by universal male suffrage.
Napoleon’s nephew, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, was elected
president of the Second French Republic. He believed, however,
that he had inherited his uncle’s destiny. So, in 1851 he did away
with the constitution. A year later, the people voted him Emperor
Napoleon III. At the same time, the Second French Republic was
renamed the Second French Empire. Louis-Napoleon remained
on the throne until 1870.
The revolution in France was followed by revolutions in
other parts of Europe. The Hungarians (hung ger’ ē uhns), the
Italians, and the Germans all rebelled. Their revolts failed. Even
so, the revolutions of 1848 led to some important changes. In
time, universal male suffrage spread to most northern and
western European countries. Workers, who felt they had been
cheated, began to form political parties. Soon, there was a socialist party in almost every European country.
UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES
Predicting
Consequences
Did you ever wish you could see
into the future? Predicting future
events is very difficult. You can, however, develop skills that will help you
identify the logical consequences of
decisions or actions.
Learning the Skill Follow these
steps to help you accurately predict
consequences.
• Review what you already know
about a situation by listing facts,
events, and people’s responses. The
list will help you recall events and
how they affected people.
Skill Practice
Historians often make predictions
about the future based on patterns
from the past. Imagine you are a historian at the start of 1849. Use the
information in the chart below to
make predictions about what lies
ahead for the 1850s and 1860s.
Events of the Early 1800s
Results and Reactions
• Analyze patterns. Try to determine
what the patterns show.
Napoleon is defeated
at the Battle of Waterloo.
The Congress of Vienna
seeks to restore divine-right
monarchy to Europe.
• Use your knowledge and observations of similar situations. In other
words, ask yourself, "What were
the consequences of a similar decision or action that occurred in the
past?"
The July Revolution of
1830 returns constitutional
monarchy to France.
Rebellions erupt in
other European nations.
Worker riots in France
lead to revolution and the
Second French Republic.
The revolution in France
is followed by revolutions
in other parts of Europe.
• Analyze each
of the potential consequences by
asking, "How
likely is it that
this will
occur?"
The revolutions of 1848
fail to overturn the
Congress System.
?
The following questions will serve
as a guide.
• Make a
prediction.
Louis-Philippe fled France in
1848
Glencoe’s Skillbuilder
Interactive Workbook CD-ROM,
Level 1, provides instruction and
practice in key social studies skills.
1. Review the information on the
chart. What patterns do you
notice? What do the facts tell you
about political affairs in Europe
during the early 1800s?
2. Suppose one of the leaders who
took part in the Congress of Vienna asked you to predict what to
expect in the mid-1800s. What
would you say? Was the Congress
System safe from future threats?
Explain.
571
Section 2 Assessment
1. Define: balance of power, liberals,
nationalists, socialists, utopian socialists, proletariat, communism, universal
male suffrage, strike, national workshops.
2. What were two goals of the Congress
of Vienna?
3. What were some of the results of the
revolutions of 1848?
or socialists—would you have supported in the 1800s? Why?
Graphic Organizer Activity
5. Draw this diagram, and use it to show
predictions made by Karl Marx.
Marx's
Predictions
Critical Thinking
4. Making Comparisons Which one of
the three groups—liberals, nationalists,
SECTION 3 Growth of Nationalism
After the revolutions of 1848 failed, the Congress System
seemed stronger than ever. However, this was not the case.
Before long, the growth of nationalism would destroy the balance
of power that had been established at Vienna. Three countries
that were affected by the growth of nationalism were Italy, Germany, and Austria.
Charcoal and Freedom Carbonari, which
means “charcoal burners”
in Italian, was the name of
one of the first secret societies formed to overthrow
foreign rule in Italy. Charcoal is black, but it glows
brightly when burning.
Italian rebels associated the
glow with the light of freedom and liberty.
572
Italy
In 1848, eight of the nine Italian states were under
Austrian control. Only Sardinia (sahr din’ ē uh) was independent. Ever since Napoleon’s time, the Italians had been unhappy
about this state of affairs. They remembered that Rome had once
ruled the ancient world and that Italian city-states had led the
Renaissance. They wanted to become a unified nation.
Many nationalists in Italy looked to Sardinia to take the
lead. This was because of Sardinia’s prime minister, Count
Camillo di Cavour (kont kuh mē ’ lō dē kuh vuhr ’). Cavour
believed in industrialization and favored a constitutional monarchy. He also realized that Sardinia needed help to drive the Austrians out of Italy. To this end, he made an agreement with
Napoleon III. It stated that if the Austrians attacked Sardinia, the
French would help the Sardinians. When Austria declared war
on Sardinia in 1859, Napoleon III kept his word. Austria was
defeated, and the Italian state of Lombardy (lahm’ bahr dē) was
united with Sardinia. By 1860, the other northern Italian states
also revolted against Austria and united with Sardinia.
That same year, an Italian nationalist named Giuseppe
Garibaldi (jū zep’ ā gār uh bahl’ dē) led another revolution in
UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES
Garibaldi Between 1850
and 1860, Giuseppe
Garibaldi lived on Staten
Island in New York City.
Here he made a meager
living working in a friend’s
candle factory.
GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI
Giuseppe Garibaldi led the fight for Italian unification in southern Italy. He was skilled in guerrilla warfare, having fought in other revolutionary wars. In this painting, Garibaldi leads his Red Shirts in an attack on troops
from Naples. Who became king of the united Italy?
southern Italy. Garibaldi had spent much of his life in exile in
Brazil and Uruguay (yūr’ uh gwı̄). There, he had learned how to
lead small bands of soldiers behind enemy lines. The bands
would hide in forests and on hillsides. They would make surprise attacks on the enemy and then go back into hiding. This
kind of fighting is called guerrilla warfare (guh ril’ uh wōr fār).
In guerrilla warfare, a small group of soldiers can often defeat a
much larger army.
Garibaldi taught guerrilla warfare to his followers. They
were called “Red Shirts” because they, like their leader, wore red
shirts. They also wore loose grey trousers, silk handkerchiefs
around their necks, grey cloaks, and black felt hats. In 1860,
Garibaldi’s Red Shirts conquered Sicily within three months.
Then, they sailed to the Italian mainland and conquered the state
of Naples.
In 1861, the northern and southern nationalist groups combined. The Kingdom of Italy was formed as a constitutional
monarchy. Victor Emmanuel II (ē man’ yū el) of Sardinia became
king. The Pope, who wanted to keep control over the Papal
Reading Check
Why might
rebels such as the
"Red Shirts" engage in
guerrilla warfare?
CHAPTER 35 UNREST IN EUROPE
573
States, fought against Italian unity and lost. In 1870, the Papal
States became part of Italy, and Italian unification was complete.
The balance of power in Europe, however, was weakened.
Germany Bismarck
fought three wars to unify
Germany, but another
war—World War II—
left Germany divided for
45 years. In 1990, West
Germany and East
Germany were reunited as
one country.
Reading Check
What was a
junker?
Reading Check
Who was the
kaiser of the new
German Empire?
574
Germany
Nationalist feelings were also strong in the 39
German states. German poets and writers, like Johann Wolfgang
von Goethe (ger’ tuh) and Friedrich von Schiller (shil’ uhr), wrote
about German nationalism. German composer Richard Wagner
(vahg’ nuhr) wrote operas based on German folk tales. In 1834,
many of the German states signed a trade agreement. In it, they
promised not to tax goods coming from other German states.
Soon, the economy of these states improved. However, many of
the rulers of the smaller states were not willing to give up their
political power. Austria was also against any attempt to unify
Germany.
These obstacles were overcome by the Kingdom of Prussia.
In 1862, King William I named Count Otto von Bismarck (biz’
mahrk) prime minister of Prussia. Bismarck was a junker (yung’
kuhr), or rich landowner, who believed in divine-right monarchy.
He said that he would unite Germany, not “by speeches and
majority votes—but by blood and iron.” He also believed that war
against a common enemy would bring the German states closer
together.
In 1864, Bismarck joined with Austria to defeat Denmark and
to gain territory. Two years later, he used a dispute over this
territory as an excuse to go to war against Austria. Prussia won
the war in seven weeks. It had superior weapons, as well as an
excellent railroad system that moved troops quickly from one
battlefield to another. The resulting peace treaty ended the loose
German Confederation. The North German Confederation, led
by Prussia, was set up in its place.
In 1870, Bismarck found an excuse to go to war against
France, Germany’s oldest enemy. As Bismarck had hoped, the
southern German states joined the northern German states in the
struggle. Well-trained and well-equipped, the German army
easily defeated the French army. Bismarck then laid siege to Paris.
The city held out for four months. Food became so scarce that the
people were forced to eat the animals in the zoo. The trees that
Napoleon III had planted along the streets of Paris were cut
down and used for fuel. At last, on January 28, 1871, the city
surrendered.
Meanwhile, at Versailles (vuhr sı̄’), William I of Prussia was
named kaiser (kı̄’ zuhr), or emperor, of the new German Empire.
This included both the northern and the southern German states,
as well as the rich mining and manufacturing lands of Alsace (al’
sas) and Lorraine (luh rān’), which had been won from France. A
unified Germany, however, meant a further weakening of the balance of power.
UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES
Otto von Bismarck
1815-1898
Prime Minister
of Prussia
THE GERMAN EMPIRE
The struggle for a united Germany was led by
Count Otto von Bismarck, prime minister of Prussia. In this painting, Bismarck (center) proclaims King William I of Prussia (on platform) the emperor of a new German
empire. What effect did a unified Germany have on Europe?
Austria
Nationalists in Italy and Germany wanted to unify
their nations. Nationalists in Austria, on the other hand, threatened the unity of the Austrian Empire.
The Austrian Empire was made up of many nationalities.
Although its emperor, Francis Joseph, was German, four out of
five people were not. Other nationalities included the Czechs, the
Slovaks, the Poles, the Croats, the Slovenes, and the Magyars
(mag’ yahrs), the largest group in Hungary. Each had its own language and history and wanted self-rule.
By 1866, Austria had been defeated by both Sardinia and
Prussia. Magyar nationalists saw their chance to become independent. They revolted. In 1867, a weakened Austria agreed to
create a dual monarchy. Now, the emperor ruled over two separate kingdoms—Austria and Hungary. Each had its own official
language, parliament, and laws. Although they were separate
politically, the two countries needed each other economically.
Austria supplied manufactured goods to Hungary. In return,
Hungary supplied Austria with food products.
Otto von Bismarck
grew up the son of a
wealthy landowner,
whose noble ancestry
stretched back more
than five centuries. He
was only an average
student and showed
little promise until his
30s, when he married
and entered politics.
For the rest of his life,
Bismarck demonstrated the discipline he
had lacked as a youth.
He was the architect
of German unification
and served as the first
chancellor, or prime
minister, of unified
Germany. People
called him the "Iron
Chancellor."
CHAPTER 35 UNREST IN EUROPE
575
The Magyars were satisfied with the situation of having separate countries, but other nationalities in Austria-Hungary were
not. Their unhappiness presented a continuing threat to the dual
monarchy and the peace of Europe.
Section 3 Assessment
1. Define: guerrilla warfare, junker,
kaiser.
2. What did Garibaldi do to further
nationalism in Italy?
3. How was Austria-Hungary formed?
How did most of its citizens feel about
this?
think the Italian city-states wanted to
be a unified nation? Explain.
Graphic Organizer Activity
5. Draw this diagram, and use it to
describe the importance of these dates
in the drive for German unification:
1834, 1862, 1864, 1870.
1834
1862
1864
1870
Critical Thinking
4. Drawing Conclusions Why do you
Chapter Summary & Study Guide
1. In 1804, Napoleon became emperor of
France. He then set out to conquer the
rest of Europe—a plan that nearly succeeded.
2. Although Napoleon created a strong
central government and a new code of
laws, the people of France still lost certain rights.
3. After Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress
of Vienna tried to establish a balance of
power in Europe and to restore divineright monarchy.
4. Liberals, nationalists, and socialists
opposed the Congress System.
5. A series of revolutions broke out in
many European countries in 1820, 1830,
and 1848.
6. Liberal reforms were made in Great
Britain without a revolution.
576
UNIT 11 NATIONS AND EMPIRES
7. The revolutions of 1848 failed to overthrow the Congress System, but they
still had lasting results, including the
spread of universal male suffrage and
the rise of socialism among workers.
8. The rise of nationalism led to the unification of Italy between 1859 and 1870
and the unification of Germany
between 1862 and 1871.
9. In the Austrian Empire, nationalism led
to the Empire’s division into two separate kingdoms—Austria and Hungary—each of which had many
different national groups that wanted
independence.
Self-Check Quiz
Visit the Human Heritage Web site at humanheritage.
glencoe.com and click on Chapter 35—Self-Check Quiz
to assess your understanding of this chapter.
CHAPTER
35 Assessment
Using Key Terms
Imagine you are a writer in Europe in
the 1800s. You have been asked to prepare
a brief introduction to a revolutionary
handbook—a book telling people how to
bring about change or to resist unfair governments. Use the following words in
your introduction.
scorched-earth policy
balance of power
proletariat
strike
kaiser
1. What did Napolean reveal about himself at his crowning as emperor?
2. Do you think Napoleon’s conquests
were good or bad for Europe? Explain
your answer.
3. How important was nationalism in
Europe during the second half of the
1800s? Explain.
1.
2.
tails
Critical Thinking
Generalization
g De
1. Why did the representatives at the
Congress of Vienna try to bring back
divine-right monarchy?
2. Why did the temporary French government of 1848 set up national workshops?
3. How did Napoleon III help Italian
nationalists?
4. How did the German states become
unified?
5. What were some of the results of the
war between Prussia and France?
6. Why were national groups in AustriaHungary unhappy in the 1860s?
History Create a diagram like the
one shown, and use it to give details that
support the following generalization: The
Congress of Vienna failed in its goal to
return Europe to the old order.
ortin
Understanding Main Ideas
Graphic Organizer Activity
Supp
plebiscite
abdicate
liberals
communism
guerrilla warfare
4. "Liberal reforms can only be made
with a revolution." Do you agree or
disagree with this statement? Explain.
3.
4.
Geography in History
The World in Spatial Terms Refer to
the map on page 564. During Napoleon’s
time, as during other historical eras, Paris
was an important city. What is the latitude
of Paris? What is the longitude? Describe its
relative location.
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