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Contents Mapping the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H2 GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS Geography and Map Skills Handbook Mapmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H4 Map Essentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H6 Working with Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H8 Geographic Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H10 Themes and Essential Elements of Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H12 Throughout this textbook, you will be studying the world’s people, places, and landscapes. One of the main tools you will use is the map—the primary tool of geographers. To help you begin your studies, this Geography and Map Skills Handbook explains some of the basic features of maps. For example, it explains how maps are made, how to read them, and how they can show the round surface of Earth on a flat piece of paper. This handbook will also introduce you to some of the types of maps you will study later in this book. In addition, you will learn about the different kinds of features on Earth and about how geographers use themes and elements to study the world. Geography Skills With map zone geography skills, you can go online to find interactive versions of the key maps in this book. Explore these interactive maps to learn and practice important map skills and bring geography to life. You can access all of the interactive maps in this book through the Interactive Student Edition at GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS H1 Using Latitude and Longitude A globe is a scale model of the Earth. It is useful for showing the entire Earth or studying large areas of Earth’s surface. Lines of Latitude GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS North Pole °N 80°N ° N 70 60 50 °N 40 °N °N 30 °N 20 °N 10 0° 40° E q u ato r 10°S 20°S 30°S Lines of Longitude North Pole 150°W 120°W 90°W 180° E 150° 120 °E 90 °E 30° W To study the world, geographers use a pattern of imaginary lines that circles the globe in east-west and north-south directions. It is called a grid. The intersection of these imaginary lines helps us find places on Earth. The east-west lines in the grid are lines of latitude, which you can see on the diagram. Lines of latitude are called parallels because they are always parallel to each other. These imaginary lines measure distance north and south of the equator. The equator is an imaginary line that circles the globe halfway between the North and South Poles. Parallels measure distance from the equator in degrees. The symbol for degrees is °. Degrees are further divided into minutes. The symbol for minutes is ´. There are 60 minutes in a degree. Parallels north of the equator are labeled with an N. Those south of the equator are labeled with an S. The north-south imaginary lines are lines of longitude. Lines of longitude are called meridians. These imaginary lines pass through the poles. They measure distance east and west of the prime meridian. The prime meridian is an imaginary line that runs through Greenwich, England. It represents 0° longitude. Lines of latitude range from 0°, for locations on the equator, to 90°N or 90°S, for locations at the poles. Lines of longitude range from 0° on the prime meridian to 180° on a meridian in the mid-Pacific Ocean. Meridians west of the prime meridian to 180° are labeled with a W. Those east of the prime meridian to 180° are labeled with an E. Using latitude and longitude, geographers can identify the exact location of any place on Earth. 60 °W GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS H2 Mapping the Earth 60° 60°E 0° Prime Meridian 30°E Northern Hemisphere NORTHERN HEMISPHERE ARCTIC OCEAN North Pole PACIFIC OCEAN ATLANTIC OCEAN ua to NORTH AMERICA r Eq u Southern Hemisphere SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE at SOUTH AMERICA or PACIFIC OCEAN SOUTHERN OCEAN South Pole ATLANTIC OCEAN ST AU AF RIC A ANTARCTICA RA L Western WESTERN Hemisphere HEMISPHERE ICA AFR EUROPE GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS ASIA Eq The equator divides the globe into two halves, called hemispheres. The half north of the equator is the Northern Hemisphere. The southern half is the Southern Hemisphere. The prime meridian and the 180° meridian divide the world into the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere. Look at the diagrams on this page. They show each of these four hemispheres. Earth’s land surface is divided into seven large landmasses, called continents. These continents are also shown on the diagrams on this page. Landmasses smaller than continents and completely surrounded by water are called islands. Geographers organize Earth’s water surface into major regions too. The largest is the world ocean. Geographers divide the world ocean into the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Arctic Ocean, and the Southern Ocean. Lakes and seas are smaller bodies of water. INDIAN OCEAN INDIAN OCEAN IA Eastern Hemisphere EASTERN HEMISPHERE North Pole North Pole EUROPE ASIA ATLANTIC OCEAN 180° NORTH AMERICA AFRICA Equator PACIFIC OCEAN SOUTH AMERICA Equator ATLANTIC OCEAN INDIAN OCEAN AUSTRALIA ANTARCTICA South Pole Prime Meridian ANTARCTICA South Pole GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS 6-8_SNLBESE484907_FM_H1-H13.indd 3 H3 4/6/12 4:05:12 PM GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS Mapmaking Understanding Map Projections A map is a flat diagram of all or part of Earth’s surface. Mapmakers have created different ways of showing our round planet on flat maps. These different ways are called map projections. Because Earth is round, there is no way to show it accurately on a flat map. All flat maps are distorted in some way. Mapmakers must choose the type of map projection that is best for their purposes. Many map projections are one of three kinds: cylindrical, conic, or flat-plane. Cylindrical Projections Paper cylinder Mercator projection H4 GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS Cylindrical projections are based on a cylinder wrapped around the globe. The cylinder touches the globe only at the equator. The meridians are pulled apart and are parallel to each other instead of meeting at the poles. This causes landmasses near the poles to appear larger than they really are. The map below is a Mercator projection, one type of cylindrical projection. The Mercator projection is useful for navigators because it shows true direction and shape. However, it distorts the size of land areas near the poles. Conic Projections GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS Conic projections are based on a cone placed over the globe. A conic projection is most accurate along the lines of latitude where it touches the globe. It retains almost true shape and size. Conic projections are most useful for showing areas that have long east-west dimensions, such as the United States. Paper cone Conic projection Flat-plane Projections Flat-plane projections are based on a plane touching the globe at one point, such as at the North Pole or South Pole. A flat-plane projection is useful for showing true direction for airplane pilots and ship navigators. It also shows true area. However, it distorts the true shapes of landmasses. Flat-plane projection Flat plane GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS H5 GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS Map Essentials How to Read a Map Maps are like messages sent out in code. To help us translate the code, mapmakers provide certain features. These features help us understand the message they are presenting about a particular part of the world. Of these features, almost all maps have a title, a compass rose, a scale, and a legend. The map below has these four features, plus a fifth—a locator map. 1 Title A map’s title shows what the subject of the map is. The map title is usually the first thing you should look at when studying a map, because it tells you what the map is trying to show. 5 1 The First Crusade, 1096 North Sea N 2 Christian lands, 1095 ENGLAND W E S ATLANTIC OCEAN HRW-MS World Geography N mg7fvs_grmmap020ba HOLY The First Crusade, 1096 ROMAN Locator EMPIRE FINAL – 6/29/05 50° First Crusade, 1096–1099 3 0 0 100 100 200 Miles 200 Kilometers Projection: Azimuthal Equal Area Regensburg FRANCE 4 Muslim lands, 1095 Vienna Lyon HRW-MS World Geog mg7fvs_grmmap020c The First Crusade, 10 Black Sea Legend FINAL – 6/29/05 Trieste Genoa Zadar Corsica Rome Constantinople SELJUK TURKS 40°N Mediterranean Sea BYZANTINE EMPIRE 10°E 0° 10° W Sardinia Edessa Antioch Sicily Tripoli H6 GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS 30°E 20°E Crete Acre HOLY LAND Jerusalem A directional indicator shows which way north, south, east, and west lie on the map. Some mapmakers use a “north arrow,” which points toward the North Pole. Remember, “north” is not always at the top of a map. The way a map is drawn and the location of directions on that map depend on the perspective of the mapmaker. Most maps in this textbook indicate direction by using a compass rose. A compass rose has arrows that point to all four principal directions. GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS 2 Compass Rose N E W S 3 Scale Christian lands, 1095 Muslim lands, 1095 Mapmakers use scales to represent the distances between points on a map. Scales may appear on maps in several different forms. The maps in this textbook provide a bar scale. Scales give distances in miles and kilometers. To find the distance between two points on the map, place a piece of paper so that the edge connects the two points. Mark the location of each point on the paper with a line or dot. Then, compare the distance between the two dots with the map’s bar scale. The number on the top of the scale gives the distance in miles. The number on the bottom gives the distance in kilometers. Because the distances are given in large intervals, you may have to approximate the actual distance on the scale. First Crusade, 1096–1099 0 0 100 100 200 Miles 200 Kilometers Projection: Azimuthal Equal Area HRW-MS World Geog mg7fvs_grmmap020c The First Crusade, 10 Legend FINAL – 6/29/05 4 Legend The legend, or key, explains what the symbols on the map represent. Point symbols are used to specify the location of things, such as cities, that do not take up much space on the map. Some legends show colors that represent certain features like empires or other regions. Other maps might have legends with symbols or colors that represent features such as roads. Legends can also show economic resources, land use, population density, and climate. 5 Locator Map A locator map shows where in the world the area on the map is located. The area shown on the main map is shown in red on the locator map. The locator map also shows surrounding areas so the map reader can see how the information on the map relates to neighboring lands. Christian lands, 1095 Muslim lands, 1095 First Crusade, 1096–1099 0 0 100 100 200 Miles 200 Kilometers Projection: Azimuthal Equal Area HRW-MS World Geog mg7fvs_grmmap020c The First Crusade, 10 Legend FINAL – 6/29/05 HRW-MS World Geography mg7fvs_grmmap020ba The First Crusade, 1096 Locator FINAL – 6/29/05 GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS H7 GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS Working with Maps Using Different Kinds of Maps As you study the world’s regions and countries, you will use a variety of maps. Political maps and physical maps are two of the most common types of maps you will study. In addition, you will use special-purpose maps. These maps might show climate, population, resources, ancient empires, or other topics. Political Maps Political maps show the major political features of a region. These features include country borders, capital cities, and other places. Political maps use different colors to represent countries, and capital cities are often shown with a special star symbol. 80°W 70°W 60°W Caribbean South America: Political Caribbean Sea ATLANTIC OCEAN Barranquilla Cartagena Maracaibo 10°N TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Caracas Valencia Lake Maracaibo o Ri Orinoc r Ca uc aR ive PACIFIC OCEAN r Magdale n Medellín ver Georgetown V EN EZU EL A aR iv e PANAMA N Paramaribo G U YA N A Cayenne Bogotá SURINAME (FRANCE) 50°W Orinoco ve r 0° Equator Pu tu Rio m a yo v er Ri ECUADOR PERU Ne gr o National capital BRAZIL Other capitals Other cities Am a zon 0 River 0 100 100 200 Miles 200 Kilometers Projection: Azimuthal Equal-Area H8 GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS S FRENCH GUIANA Ri HRW Middle School World Geography Cali mg7fvs_csamap003ba Carib. S.America Physical Locator C O L O M B I A Final pass – 6/7/05 E W HRW Middle School World Geography mg7fvs_csamap001ca The Indian Subcontinent: Physical K2 Kar ft sh akor 28,251 Ku am (8,611 m) e ng Ra River CHINA ab Mount IM en . Everest R j . A 29,035 ft tle HRW-MS L A (8,850 m) Su World Geography AFGHANISTAN ncer E 60°E We Arabian Sea 70°E Gulf of Khambhat S ste Kri Deccan Plateau 250 500 Miles River ster Ea Gulf of Mannar MALDIVES 10°N SRI LANKA INDIAN OCEAN 90°E 500 Kilometers Bay of Bengal 80°E 250 ats t Gh oas ar C lab 0 0 Ma 4,000 2,000 500 200 0 (Sea level) Below sea level 13,120 6,560 1,640 656 (Sea level) 0 Below sea level ha r Rive shna rn ELEVATION Feet Meters G Physical maps show the major physical features of a region. These features may include mountain ranges, rivers, oceans, islands, deserts, and plains. Often, these maps use different colors to represent different elevations of land. As a result, the map reader can easily see which areas are high elevations, like mountains, and which areas are lower. BANGLADESH MYANMAR ges Gan a Delt n Corom andel Coast N W iver da R Narma I N DIA Go dav ari Rive r Physical Maps tr ap u Brahm ts Tropic of Ca 20°N BHUTAN Chamb a In YA PAKISTAN mg7fvs_indmap005ba NEPAL S us d G a Thar nget South Asia: Physical ic P Ta r a i G lain Indus LocatorDesert a ng R. es River River l FINAL – 8/22/05 Valley a un Yam a R H Rive Ch r IRAN 30°N GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS Hindu Projection: Albers Equal-Area HRW-MS World Geography West Africa: Climate mg7fvs_indmap005ca South Asia: Physical Legend FINAL – 8/22/05 Special-Purpose Maps 10°N GUINEABISSAU MALI r i ve rR ge Ni GAMBIA NIGERIA South Asia: Physical FINAL – 8/22/05 CÔTE D’IVOIRE SIERRA LEONE CHAD NIGER HRW MS World Geography BURKINA FASO mg7fvs_indmap005aa BENIN GUINEA TOGO LIBERIA GHANA 0° 10°W Special-purpose maps focus on one special topic, such as climate, resources, or population. These maps present information on the topic that is particularly important in the region. Depending on the type of special-purpose map, the information may be shown with different colors, arrows, dots, or other symbols. MG7FVS_wafmap005ba 20°N HRW-MS Geography Maps MAURITANIA West Africa: Climate Locator Final pass--8/19/05 SENEGAL Climate Types Gulf of Guinea Humid tropical 0° Equator Desert Tropical savanna ATLANTIC OCEAN N 0 0 400 400 Steppe 800 Miles 800 Kilometers Projection: Azimuthal Equal-Area E W S 10°S Using Maps in Geography The different kinds of maps in this textbook will help you study and understand geography. By working with these maps, you will see what the physical geography of places is like, where people live, and how the world has changed over time. HRW MS Geography mg7fvs_wafmap005ca West Africa: Climate legend Final pass – 8/18/05 GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS H9 GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS Geographic Dictionary OCEAN a large body of water CORAL REEF an ocean ridge made up of skeletal remains of tiny sea animals GULF a large part of the ocean that extends into land PENINSULA an area of land that sticks out into a lake or ocean ISTHMUS a narrow piece of land connecting two larger land areas DELTA an area where a river deposits soil into the ocean WETLAND an area of land covered by shallow water H10 BAY part of a large body of water that is smaller than a gulf ISLAND an area of land surrounded entirely by water STRAIT a narrow body of water connecting two larger bodies of water SINKHOLE a circular depression formed when the roof of a cave collapses RIVER a natural flow of water that runs through the land LAKE an inland body of water FOREST an area of densely wooded land GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS MOUNTAIN MOUNTAIN an an area area of of rugged rugged land land that that generally generally rises rises higher higher than than 2,000 2,000 feet feet VALLEY VALLEY an an area area of of lowlow land land between between hills hills or or mountains mountains VOLCANO VOLCANO an an opening opening in Earth’s in Earth’s crust crust where where lava, lava, ash, ash, and and gases gases erupt erupt CANYON CANYON a deep, a deep, narrow narrow valley valley with with steep steep walls walls GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS COAST COAST an an area area of of land land near near thethe ocean ocean GLACIER GLACIER a large a large area area of of slow-moving slow-moving iceice HILL HILL a rounded, a rounded, elevated elevated area area of of land land smaller smaller than than a mountain a mountain PLAIN PLAIN a nearly a nearly flatflat area area DUNE DUNE a hill a hill of of sand sand shaped shaped by by wind wind OASIS OASIS an an area area in the in the desert desert with with a a water water source source DESERT DESERT an an extremely extremely drydry area area with with little little water water and and fewfew plants plants PLATEAU PLATEAU a large, a large, flat, flat, elevated elevated area area of of land land GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS H11 GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS Themes and Essential Elements of Geography by Dr. Christopher L. Salter To study the world, geographers have identified 5 key themes, 6 essential elements, and 18 geography standards. “How should we teach and learn about geography?” Professional geographers have worked hard over the years to answer this important question. In 1984 a group of geographers identified the 5 Themes of Geography. These themes did a wonderful job of laying the groundwork for good classroom geography. Teachers used the 5 Themes in class, and geographers taught workshops on how to apply them in the world. By the early 1990s, however, some geographers felt the 5 Themes were too broad. They created the 18 Geography Standards and the 6 Essential Elements. The 18 Geography Standards include more detailed information about what geography is, and the 6 Essential Elements are like a bridge between the 5 Themes and 18 Standards. Look at the chart to the right. It shows how each of the 5 Themes connects to the Essential Elements and Standards. For example, the theme of Location is related to The World in Spatial Terms and the first three Standards. Study the chart carefully to see how the other themes, elements, and Standards are related. The last Essential Element and the last two Standards cover The Uses of Geography. These key parts of geography were not covered by the 5 Themes. They will help you see how geography has influenced the past, present, and future. H12 GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS 5 Themes of Geography Location The theme of location describes where something is. Place Place describes the features that make a site unique. Regions Regions are areas that share common characteristics. TRAFFIC IMAGE TO COME? JOELEEN SENDING Movement This theme looks at how and why people and things move. Human-Environment Interaction People inter- act with their environment in many ways. 1. How to use maps and other tools 2. How to use mental maps to organize information 3. How to analyze the spatial organization of people, places, and environments I. The World in Spatial Terms GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS 6 Essential Elements 18 Geography Standards 4. The physical and human characteristics of places 5. How people create regions to interpret Earth 6. How culture and experience influence people’s perceptions of places and regions II. Places and Regions 7. The physical processes that shape Earth’s surface 8. The distribution of ecosystems on Earth 9. The characteristics, distribution, and migration of human populations III. Physical Systems 10. The complexity of Earth’s cultural mosaics 11. The patterns and networks of economic interdependence on Earth IV. Human Systems 12. The patterns of human settlement 13. The forces of cooperation and conflict 14. How human actions modify the physical environment V. Environment and Society VI. The Uses of Geography 15. How physical systems affect human systems 16. The distribution and meaning of resources 17. How to apply geography to interpret the past 18. How to apply geography to interpret the present and plan for the future GEOGRAPHY AND MAP SKILLS H13