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Definition
„
Artificial Intelligence
Goal Formulation
Given situations we should adopt the “goal”
1st step in problem solving!
It is a set of world states, only those in which the goal is satisfied
Action causes transition between world states
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3. Solving Problems By Searching
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Problem Formulation
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CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Formulation of simple problem-solving agent
Function SIMPLE-PROB-SOLV-AGENT(p) returns an action
inputs: p; //percept
Static: seq; // action sequence, initially empty
state; //description of the current world
g; //goal, initially null
problem; //problem formulation
state <- Update-State (state, p);
If seq is empty then
g <- Formulate-Goal(state)
problem <- Formulate-Problem(state, g);
seq <- Search(problem);
action <- First(seq, state);
seq <- Rest(seq);
Return action
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
Process of deciding what actions and states to consider, and
follows goal formulation
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
Examples (1) traveling
On holiday in Taiif
„ Formulate Goal
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Formulate Problem
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Be after two days in Paris
States: various cities
Actions: drive/fly between cities
Find Solution
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Sequence of cities: e.g., Taiif, Jeddah, Riyadh, Paris
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
Examples (2) Vacuum World
• 8 possible world states
• 3 possible actions:
Left/Right/ Suck
• Goal: clean up all the
dirt= state(7) or
state(8)
•world is accessible Î agent’s sensors give enough information about
which state it is in (so, it knows what each of its action does),
then it calculate exactly which state it will be after any sequence
of actions. Single-State problem
• world is inaccessible Î agent has limited access to the world
state, so it may have no sensors at all. It knows only that initial
state is one of the set {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}. Multiple-States problem
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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1
Problem Definition
Vacuum World
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PSU
Vacuum World
Initial state
Operator: description of an action
State space: all states reachable from the initial state by any
sequence action
Path: sequence of actions leading from one state to another
Goal test: which the agent can apply to a single state
description to determine if it is a goal state
Path cost function: assign a cost to a path which the sum of
the costs of the individual actions along the path.
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Real-world problems
S1
S2
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S3
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
S6
S5
Routine finding
z
S4
z
z
z
S7
S8
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Travelling Salesperson problem (TSP)
z
•States: S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 , S5 , S6 , S7 , S8
Routing in computer networks
Automated travel advisory system
Airline travel planning system
Goal: the best path between the origin and the
destination
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Is a famous touring problem in which each city must be
visited exactly once.
Goal: shortest tour
• Operators: Go Left , Go Right , Suck
• Goal test: no dirt left in both squares
• Path Cost: each action costs 1.
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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Data Structure for Search Tree
(a) The initial state
Mecca
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(b) After expanding
Taiif
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Medina
Jeddah
DataType Node:
Components:
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ƒ
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Riyadh
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Al-Qassim
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data structure with 5 components
State
Parent-node
Operator
Depth
Path-cost
Taiif
Riyadh
Riyadh
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
2
Search Strategies
Example: vacuum world
The strategies are evaluated based on 4 criteria:
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Single-state, start in #5.
Solution?
Completeness: always find solution when there is one
Time Complexity: how long does it take to find a solution
Space Complexity: how much memory does it need to
perform the search
Optimality: does the strategy find the highest-quality
solution
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
Example: vacuum world
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Single-state, start in #5.
Solution? [Right, Suck]
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Sensorless, start in
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} e.g.,
Right goes to {2,4,6,8}
Solution?
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
Example: vacuum world
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Sensorless, start in
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} e.g.,
Right goes to {2,4,6,8}
Solution?
[Right,Suck,Left,Suck]
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Contingency
z
z
z
Nondeterministic: Suck may
dirty a clean carpet
Partially observable: location, dirt at current location.
Percept: [L, Clean], i.e., start in #5 or #7
Solution?
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Sensorless, start in
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} e.g.,
Right goes to {2,4,6,8}
Solution?
A problem is defined by four items:
2.
initial state e.g., "at Arad"
actions or successor function S(x) = set of action–state pairs
[Right,Suck,Left,Suck]
3.
goal test, can be
Contingency
4.
1.
z
z
z
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
z
z
z
PSU
Single-state problem formulation
Example: vacuum world
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CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
z
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explicit, e.g., x = "at Bucharest"
implicit, e.g., Checkmate(x)
path cost (additive)
z
Nondeterministic: Suck may
dirty a clean carpet
Partially observable: location, dirt at current location.
Percept: [L, Clean], i.e., start in #5 or #7
e.g., S(Arad) = {<Arad Æ Zerind, Zerind>, … }
e.g., sum of distances, number of actions executed, etc.
c(x,a,y) is the step cost, assumed to be ≥ 0
A solution is a sequence of actions leading from the initial state to a goal
state
Solution? [Right, if dirt then Suck]
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
3
Vacuum world state space graph
Selecting a state space
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Real world is absurdly complex
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(Abstract) state = set of real states
(Abstract) action = complex combination of real actions
Æ state space must be abstracted for problem solving
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z
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z
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e.g., "Arad Æ Zerind" represents a complex set of possible routes,
detours, rest stops, etc.
For guaranteed realizability, any real state "in Arad“ must get to
some real state "in Zerind"
(Abstract) solution =
set of real paths that are solutions in the real world
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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Each abstract action should be "easier" than the original
problem
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PSU
Vacuum world state space graph
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
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states? integer dirt and robot location
actions? Left, Right, Suck
goal test? no dirt at all locations
path cost? 1 per action
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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Example: The 8-puzzle
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Example: The 8-puzzle
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states?
actions?
goal test?
path cost?
states?
actions?
goal test?
path cost?
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
Example: robotic assembly
states? locations of tiles
actions? move blank left, right, up, down
goal test? = goal state (given)
path cost? 1 per move
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states?: real-valued coordinates of robot joint angles parts
of the object to be assembled
actions?: continuous motions of robot joints
goal test?: complete assembly
path cost?: time to execute
[Note: optimal solution of n-Puzzle family is NP-hard]
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
4
Tree search algorithms
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Example: Romania
Basic idea:
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offline, simulated exploration of state space by generating
successors of already-explored states (a.k.a.~expanding
states)
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Tree search example
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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Tree search example
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Tree search example
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Implementation: general tree search
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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5
Implementation: states vs. nodes
Search strategies
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A state is a (representation of) a physical configuration
A node is a data structure constituting part of a search tree
includes state, parent node, action, path cost g(x), depth
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A search strategy is defined by picking the order of node
expansion
Strategies are evaluated along the following dimensions:
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z
z
z
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Time and space complexity are measured in terms of
z
z
z
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PSU
Uninformed search strategies
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Breadth-first search
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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PSU
Expand shallowest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
fringe is a FIFO queue, i.e., new successors go at end
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fringe is a FIFO queue, i.e., new successors go at
end
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
Breadth-first search
Expand shallowest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
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Breadth-first search
Uninformed search strategies use only the
information available in the problem definition
Breadth-first search
Uniform-cost search
Depth-first search
Depth-limited search
Iterative deepening search
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b: maximum branching factor of the search tree
d: depth of the least-cost solution
m: maximum depth of the state space (may be ∞)
The Expand function creates new nodes, filling in the various
fields and using the SuccessorFn of the problem to create the
corresponding states.
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completeness: does it always find a solution if one exists?
time complexity: number of nodes generated
space complexity: maximum number of nodes in memory
optimality: does it always find a least-cost solution?
PSU
Expand shallowest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
fringe is a FIFO queue, i.e., new successors go at end
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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6
Properties of breadth-first search
Breadth-first search
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Expand shallowest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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Space is the bigger problem (more than time)
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fringe is a FIFO queue, i.e., new successors go at end
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
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Complete? Yes (if b is finite)
Time? 1+b+b2+b3+… +bd + b(bd-1) = O(bd+1)
Space? O(bd+1) (keeps every node in memory)
Optimal? Yes (if cost = 1 per step)
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PSU
Breadth-first search tree sample
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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Breadth First Complexity
Branching factor: number of nodes generated by a node parent (we called here “b”)
Î Here after b=2
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0 expansion
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The root Î generates (b) new nodes
Each of which Î generates (b) more nodes
So, the maximum number of nodes expended before
finding a solution at level “d”, it is :
1+b+b2+b3+….+bd
Complexity is exponential = O(bd)
1 expansion
2 expansions
3 expansions
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
Time and memory requirement in
Breadth-first
Breadth First Algorithm
Depth
Void breadth ()
{
queue=[]; //initialize the empty queue
state = root_node; // initialize the start state
while (! Is_goal( state ) )
{
add_to_back_of_queue (successors(state));
if queue == []
return FAILURE;
FAILURE
state = queue[0]; //state=first item in queue
remove_first_item_from (queue);
}
return SUCCESS
}
Nodes
Time
Memory
0
1
1 millisec
100 bytes
2
111
.1 sec
11 Kb
4
11.111
11 sec
1 Mb
6
106
18 minutes
111 Mb
8
108
31 hours
11 Gb
10
1010
128 days
1 Tb
12
1012
35 years
111 Tb
14
1014
3500 years
11.111 Tb
Assume branching factor b=10; 1000 nodes explored/sec and 100 bytes/node
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
PSU
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7
Solution of the Routing problem using Breadth-first
Example (Routing Problem)
S
S
Sol= {S,A,G} &
A
Cost = 11
10
1
S
5
A
G
B
5
A
C
B
1
5
1
15
Sol= empty & Cost = infinity
New solution found
but not better than
what we have
C
Cost = 10 1
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
S
A
C
B
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A
15
1
C
B
5
15
C will not be
expanded as its cost
is greater than the
current solution
A
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G
11
10
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New solution found
better than the current
S
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Sol= {S,B,G} &
C
B
G
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Cost = 10
15
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A
G
G
G
10
20
A
1
C
B
5
G
G
11
10
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15
PSU
1
5
G
G
11
10
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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Depth-first search
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fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
fringe = queue ordered by path cost
Equivalent to breadth-first if step costs all equal
Complete? Yes, if step cost ≥ ε
Time? # of nodes with g ≤ cost of optimal solution, O(bceiling(C*/ ε))
where C* is the cost of the optimal solution
Space? # of nodes with g ≤ cost of optimal solution, O(bceiling(C*/
ε))
Optimal? Yes – nodes expanded in increasing order of g(n)
15
Expand deepest unexpanded node
Implementation:
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Expand least-cost unexpanded node
Implementation:
C
B
Depth-first search
z
Cost = 10
15
11
z
G
S
5
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11
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C
B
5
S
Sol= empty & Cost = infinity
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A
Sol= {S,A,G} &
5
1
S
Uniform-cost search
Cost = 11
1
New solution found
better than the current
Sol= {S,B,G} &
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Solution of the Routing problem using Uniform Cost
search
0
G
S
Sol= {S,B,G} &
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
15
11
5
15
C
B
5
Expand deepest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
PSU
fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
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8
Depth-first search
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Depth-first search
Expand deepest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
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fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
z
PSU
Depth-first search
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
„
PSU
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
„
„
fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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Depth-first search
Expand deepest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
Expand deepest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
Depth-first search
„
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
Depth-first search
Expand deepest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
Expand deepest unexpanded node
Implementation:
Expand deepest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
PSU
fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
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9
Depth-first search
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Depth-first search
Expand deepest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
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fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
z
PSU
Depth-first search
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
„
PSU
PSU
fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
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Depth-first search tree sample
Complete? No: fails in infinite-depth spaces, spaces with
loops
z
Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
Expand deepest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
Properties of depth-first search
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CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
„
fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front
Depth-first search
Expand deepest unexpanded node
Implementation:
z
Expand deepest unexpanded node
Implementation:
Branching factor: number of nodes generated by a node parent (we called here “b”)
Î Here after b=2
Modify to avoid repeated states along path
Æ complete in finite spaces
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Time? O(bm): terrible if m is much larger than d
z
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but if solutions are dense, may be much faster than breadthfirst
Space? O(bm), i.e., linear space!
Optimal? No
0 expansion
1 expansion
2 expansions
4 expansions
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
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10
Depth First Complexity
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Depth First Algorithm
Let b: is the branching factor
Let m: maximum depth to find solution
So, the maximum number of nodes expended before
finding a solution at level “m”, it is :
1+b+b+b+….+b (m times)
Memory need = b*m
Complexity in worst case = O(bm) as “Breadth-First”
Complexity in best case = O(b*m) which is excellent!
Void depth ()
{
queue=[]; //initialize the empty queue
state = root_node; // initialize the start state
while (! Is_goal( state ) )
{
add_to_front_of_queue (successors(state));
if queue == []
return FAILURE;
FAILURE
state = queue[0]; //state=first item in queue
remove_first_item_from (queue);
}
return SUCCESS
}
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Time and memory requirement in Depthfirst
Depth
Nodes
Memory
Time (best case)
0
1
1 millisec
100 bytes
2
20
0.02 sec
2 Kb
4
40
0.04 sec
4 Kb
6
10 * 6
0.06 sec
6 Kb
8
10 * 8
0.08 sec
8 Kb
10
10 *10
0.1 sec
10 Kb
12
10 * 12
0.12 sec
12 Kb
14
10 * 14
0.14 sec
14 Kb
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Dr. Mohamed Tounsi
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Example: Romania
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On holiday in Romania; currently in Arad.
Flight leaves tomorrow from Bucharest
Formulate goal:
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Formulate problem:
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z
z
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be in Bucharest
states: various cities
actions: drive between cities
Find solution:
z
sequence of cities, e.g., Arad, Sibiu, Fagaras, Bucharest
Assume branching factor b=10; 1000 nodes explored/sec and 100 bytes/node
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Problem types
Deterministic, fully observable Æ single-state problem
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Non-observable Æ sensorless problem (conformant problem)
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Nondeterministic and/or partially observable Æ contingency
problem
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Unknown state space Æ exploration problem
z
z
z
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Depth-limited search
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z
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Agent knows exactly which state it will be in; solution is a sequence
Agent may have no idea where it is; solution is a sequence
= depth-first search with depth limit l,
i.e., nodes at depth l have no successors
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Recursive implementation:
percepts provide new information about current state
often interleave} search, execution
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11
Iterative deepening search l =0
Iterative deepening search
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Iterative deepening search l =1
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Iterative deepening search
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Number of nodes generated in a depth-limited search to depth d
with branching factor b:
NDLS = b0 + b1 + b2 + … + bd 2 + bd 1 + bd
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Number of nodes generated in an iterative deepening search to
depth d with branching factor b:
NIDS = (d+1)b0 + d b^1 + (d-1)b^2 + … + 3bd-2 +2bd-1 + 1bd
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For b = 10, d = 5,
z
z
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Iterative deepening search l =2
Iterative deepening search l =3
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NDLS = 1 + 10 + 100 + 1,000 + 10,000 + 100,000 = 111,111
NIDS = 6 + 50 + 400 + 3,000 + 20,000 + 100,000 = 123,456
Overhead = (123,456 - 111,111)/111,111 = 11%
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12
Properties of iterative deepening
search
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Complete? Yes
Time? (d+1)b0 + d b1 + (d-1)b2 + … + bd =
O(bd)
Space? O(bd)
Optimal? Yes, if step cost = 1
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Repeated states
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Summary of algorithms
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Graph search
Failure to detect repeated states can turn a
linear problem into an exponential one!
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CS 370 – Artificial Intelligence
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Summary
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Problem formulation usually requires abstracting away real-world
details to define a state space that can feasibly be explored
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Variety of uninformed search strategies
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Iterative deepening search uses only linear space and not much
more time than other uninformed algorithms
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13