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SGHS ENGLISH HANDBOOK
Table of Contents
A. Handbook of MLA Style Guidelines
Style Guidelines .............................................................................................4
Formatting the Formal Essay .........................................................................4
Numbers .........................................................................................................5
Dates and Times of Day..................................................................................6
Names of Persons ............................................................................................6
Ethnic and Socioeconomic Language .............................................................6
Gender/Sexist Language ............................................................................ 6-7
Geographic Names ..........................................................................................7
Abbreviations .................................................................................................7
Organizations, Governmental Names/Terms ............................................. 7-8
Titles of Works .......................................................................................... 8-9
Quotations ................................................................................................ 9-11
Ellipsis ..........................................................................................................12
Parts of Speech; The Sentence ..................................................................13
Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives ............................................................13
Adverbs, Prepositions ..................................................................................14
Conjunctions, Interjections ..........................................................................14
Clauses, Sentence Errors ..............................................................................15
Punctuation .................................................................................................15
End Marks ....................................................................................................15
Commas ................................................................................................. 15-16
Colons ..........................................................................................................17
Semicolons ...................................................................................................17
Apostrophes ........................................................................................... 17-18
Parentheses ...................................................................................................18
Hyphens ................................................................................................. 18-19
Dashes ..........................................................................................................19
Quotation Marks ..........................................................................................20
Punctuation of Direct Quotations .................................................................20
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B.
Forms of Writing
6+1 Traits ....................................................................................................23
The Essay, Thesis Statement ................................................................. 24-25
Comparison-Contrast Essay .................................................................. 26-27
Essay Test ....................................................................................................27
Annotated Bibliography, Primary and Secondary Sources ................... 28-29
Formatting Your Paper ........................................................................... 30-31
Sample Formal MLA-Formatted Essay .......................................................32
C. Research Writing
General Introduction ....................................................................................34
Plagiarism ....................................................................................................35
MLA Documentation ....................................................................................35
The Internet, Library Databases ............................................................. 35-36
Bib Cards and Note Cards ..................................................................... 37-38
Organizing Your Note Cards .......................................................................39
Formatting the Research Documents .......................................................40
Formal Outline ....................................................................................... 40-41
The Research Paper, Works Cited Page .......................................................42
Basic In-Text Citation, Bib Card to Citations to Works Cited .............. 43-44
Presentation of Authors ......................................................................... 45-47
Composing Works-Cited Entries .............................................................47
Sample Entries: Print and NonPrint Resources .................................... 50-59
Internet Resources .....................................................................................60
Sample Entries: Internet Sources ........................................................... 60-67
Library Databases ................................................................................... 66-67
Citation Generators ................................................................................. 68-69
Abbreviating Publishers’ Names ........................................................ 70-71
Student Samples .........................................................................................72
Sample Outline ............................................................................................72
Sample Research Paper ...............................................................................73
Sample Works Cited Page ...........................................................................74
D. Glossary of Usage
Words Frequently Misused .................................................................... 76-83
E.
Spelling
Words Frequently Misspelled ................................................................. 84-94
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F.
Terminology
English Terms List ............................................................................... 94-100
Appendix
Marks for Revising and Editing…………………………………..…101-102
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank the Bozeman High School Michael J. Durney Writing Center
and especially Jean Munch for originally developing this handbook and then so
generously sharing it with us.
With the permission of the publisher, the following work was consulted during
the compilation of this handbook:
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. Seventh Edition. New
York: MLA, 2009.
For additional information on all aspects of writing, see
The Chicago Manual of Style. 15th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2003.
Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 4th ed. Boston:
Longman, 1999.
The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) Web site is another excellent source:
<http://owl.english.purdue.edu>. Those needing assistance with APA will find
answers there.
Best of all, there are ways to access the entire Writer’s Handbook online:
 The handbook is accessible on Mrs. Gardner’s English website at
http://goo.gl/2bm0H3
 The handbook is also accessible on the SGHS school website at
http://www.sgchs.com. Look under the Resources tab.
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“Don’t say it was delightful; make us say ‘delightful’ when we've read the
description. You see, all those words (horrifying, wonderful, hideous, exquisite)
are only like saying to your readers, ‘Please, will you do the job for me?’”
— C.S. Lewis
“The road to hell is paved with adverbs.”
— Stephen King
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STYLE GUIDELINES
These style guidelines apply to all SGHS writing assignments—not just research writing.
“Good writers define reality; bad ones merely restate it.”
—Edward Albee (born 1928)
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*
Formatting the Formal Essay (see example B.9; C.7-9)
Your document should
• be double-spaced,
• have one-inch margins, and
• be set to Time New Roman size 12 font.
Type a four-line heading at the top left of your paper. Follow the example below:
Your Name
Your Teacher’s Name or Teachers’ Names
The Name of Your Class/6
The Due Date (Day Month Year)
Insert a slash immediately after the course name; type the number of the period
you have the class immediately after the slash. The last line specifies the date the
paper is due.
Number your pages using a header at the .5" mark in the upper right margin.
Your header consists of your last name and the page number (Smith 7). To insert
the header
• select ‘Header and Footer’ from the ‘View’ menu;
• align to the right and type your last name;
• select ‘Page Numbers’ from the ‘Insert’ menu and click ‘OK.’
What about returns, spaces, and end marks?
• Never insert extra returns between lines, paragraphs, or works-cited
entries.
• You may insert one space or two between sentences, as long as you are
consistent throughout the paper, including the Works Cited page.
• Insert one space only with internal punctuation marks like the comma,
colon, and semi-colon.
• When a sentence ends with an abbreviation that requires a period, do not
add another period to end the sentence.
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Numbers
Never begin a sentence with a numeral. Spell out numbers that can be written in
one or two words (five, one-third, forty-seven, one hundred, six thousand) and
represent all other numbers with numerals (51/3, 101, 6,839).
Wrong: 6 out of 7 sea serpents seem slightly sluggish, but six hundred and sixty out
of every seven hundred and seventy seem simply slow.
Right:
Six out of seven sea serpents seem slightly sluggish, but 660 out of every
770 seem simply slow.
Treat the plural of a number like any other noun (fours, sixes, twenties). Use
numerals for all numbers
• preceding a technical measurement in science papers (56 milliliters),
• in addresses (N 5616 D St.),
• with decimal fractions (.5, .07, .75),
• with page references (page 407), and
• with abbreviations or symbols (17%, 35 lbs., 89¢, $5).
However, when used infrequently, it is permissible to spell out what would
ordinarily be expressed in numerals and symbols if you can do so in three words
or fewer (seventeen percent, thirty-five pounds, eighty-nine cents, five dollars).
Present large numbers with a combination of numbers and words (300 million).
Things become more complicated when there is a mix of uses. In the example
below, neither six months nor four-county region is used with related figures, so
the numbers are spelled out. But the other numbers in the sentence are paired—
and therefore related—so numerals are used.
Six months prior to the election, 500 of 795 registered voters in one four-county
region supported the legislature’s attempts to control spending, while 482 of 600
registered voters in another four-county region did not.
Inclusive Numbers In a range of numbers
• give the second number in full for numbers through ninety-nine (82-93);
• give only the last two digits of the second number when using larger
numbers (437-56), unless more are necessary for clarity (1,402-523);
• write the full range of years (439-1066) unless they are within the same
century (1981-86).
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Dates and Times of Day
The rules governing dates and times of day are straightforward.
• Both the day-month-year style (17 March 1950) and the month-day-year
style are correct in the text of a paper, but be consistent.
• Spell out months in the text of the paper, but abbreviate them in workscited entries—except May, June, and July. (See C.21, 27 for the proper
formatting of months and seasons in a works-cited entry.)
• Do not use a comma between a month and a year (May 2000).
• Lowercase centuries when writing them out; hyphenate when using them
as adjectives before nouns (sixteenth-century music).
• The abbreviation BC follows a year (29 BC), but AD precedes a year
(AD 439).
• Use numerals for most times of day (11:15 a.m.), but spell out hours when
followed by o’clock (four o’clock).
Names of Persons
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•
State a person’s name fully and accurately the first time it is used in the
text of a paper. Capitalize the official position of a person when that title
precedes the name (County Attorney Edmund Fry). In subsequent
references give the last name only, assuming you refer only to one person
with that last name in your paper.
Insert a period and a space between initials when used with a last name
(J. R. R. Tolkien); omit both spaces and periods with initials alone
(JFK, LBJ, FBI, NCIS).
Ethnic and Socioeconomic Language
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•
Capitalize the names of ethnic (Hispanic, African American, Caucasian)
and national (Germans, Spaniards) groups.
Lowercase references based on color (black people, whites) and
socioeconomics (the homeless, the aristocracy, middle-class workers).
Gender/Avoiding Sexist Language (see he/she, D.4)
Words can convey more than the writer intends, making it important to avoid
language that excludes, particularly gender-specific pronouns. In years past, most
writers would universally apply the masculine pronouns he, him, or his when the
subject did not require a specific identity, because this generic application was
widely understood to encompass both genders. But this is considered sexist
today, exclusive rather than inclusive, and so some writers use he or she, he/she,
or s/he, as a solution, but this inevitably becomes cumbersome for the writer and
tiresome for the reader.
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Consult with your instructor when you are unsure how to proceed, but in general
MLA recommends one of three alternatives:
• recasting the sentence to eliminate the need for a pronoun,
• making the antecedent (and therefore the pronoun) plural, or
• using a specific gender when referring to a particular generic situation—
being sure to occasionally vary the gender.
These alternatives also resolve any antecedent-pronoun agreement issues.
(See D.4 for examples.)
Avoid gender-specific labels (actor, actress; policeman, policewoman; waiter,
waitress; or chairman, chairwoman). Gender-neutral terms (actor, police officer,
server, and chair) are more inclusive.
Geographic Names (for specific examples, see MLA 7.3)
•
•
•
Spell out geographic names such as cities, states, and territories. With a
few exceptions, such as USSR, spell out the names of countries.
Spell out United States (or use America) rather than abbreviating USA in
formal writing.
Abbreviate such names in documentation, postal addresses, and when part
of the name of an agency or organization (USDA). When the abbreviation
is in capital letters, it is acceptable to omit periods between letters and
after; it is also correct to use them (Washington DC or D.C.; US or U.S.).
Abbreviations (see also MLA Ch. 7)
•
•
•
Titles and terms relating to times, dates, and units of measure (within
technical or scientific writing) are almost always abbreviated.
When a sentence ends with an abbreviation that requires a period, do not
add another period to end the sentence.
Certain abbreviations are written without periods, such as the postal
service abbreviation for states (two uppercase letters). When unsure,
consult a dictionary.
Organizations, Governmental Names/Terms, Capitalization
(see also Exceptions: Special Titles, A.6)
• Capitalize the names—both full and shortened—of political, legislative,
judicial, and administrative bodies, departments, offices, and bureaus:
Democrats/Republicans/Communists, the Democratic/Republican/
Communist Party, United States Congress, Congress, Senate, Parliament,
Bozeman City Council.
•
Lowercase when used as adjectives or generic entities (congressional,
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parliamentary, democratic, the party, administration, cabinet, city hall,
government, federal agencies, city council).
Lowercase acts, laws, policies, treaties, documents, and programs when
used generically. Capitalize when using their formal names, such as the
First Amendment, the Bill of Rights, the Constitution, the Brady Act, Title
IX/9, the Treaty of Versailles, the Marshall Plan, and Head Start.
Titles of Works (see also MLA 3.6.1-3.6.6)
Capitalization & Punctuation
• Take the title of a work from the title page, not from the cover or spine of
the work.
• Do not reproduce unusual characteristics, such as all capital or all
lowercase letters (this also applies to the names of web sites). Rather, set
all titles in title case: capitalize the first word, the last word, and all
principal words (including those that follow hyphens in compound terms).
• Do not capitalize articles (a, an, and the), prepositions, conjunctions, or
the to in infinitives unless they are the first or last words of any title—one
belonging to a source or one you crafted yourself: A Title of My Own.
Italicized Titles, Names, and Words Italicize (underline in handwritten form)
the titles of such works or productions that are published or produced
independently, such as
• books;
• plays;
• long poems published as books;
• pamphlets;
• periodicals (newspapers, magazines, journals);
• films;
• radio and television programs;
• ballets and operas;
• record albums, CDs, audiocassettes, and videocassettes;
• works of art;
• web sites;
• online databases; and
• the names of ships, aircraft, and spacecraft.
Italicize foreign words, as well as letters and numerals used to represent
themselves:
She was both pompous and pretentious when she referred to Petunia, her poodle, as
ma chienne.
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He excelled in reciting his ABCs but stumbled with his 1-2-3s.
NOTE: Avoid using italics or “quotation marks” to add emphasis!!! This
ineffective gimmick often results in an inappropriate tone, especially in research
or formal writing. Instead, focus on strong and appropriate word choices.
Titles in Quotation Marks Use quotation marks to enclose the titles of works
published or produced within larger works, such as
• songs,
• articles and essays,
• short stories,
• short poems,
• book chapters,
• television and radio program episodes,
• pages of a web site, and
• unpublished works like lectures and speeches.
Exceptions: Special Titles Do not italicize or use quotation marks to indicate
titles of
• sacred writings,
• laws,
• political documents,
• societies,
• buildings,
• monuments,
• conferences,
• workshops and courses, or
• instrumental music identified by form/number/key (the Funeral March,
from Chopin’s Sonata no. 2 in B flat minor, op. 35).
Shortened Titles If you use a title often in the text of your paper, you may, after
stating the title in full at least once, use an abbreviation or a shortened form of the
title, preferably one that is familiar or obvious.
Quotations (see also Punctuation of Direct Quotations, A.17)
Quotations, when used selectively, can be effective elements of writing. Use
quotations only when the original passage is particularly vivid, unusual,
controversial, or difficult to paraphrase accurately. Accuracy is extremely
important. Construct a clear, grammatically-correct sentence that introduces or
incorporates a quotation with accuracy, or paraphrase the original passage and
integrate fragments of quotations into your text.
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Quotations, Prose Type the quotation first. If it runs no more than four typed
lines, insert quotation marks and incorporate it into your paragraph. When
attributing the quotation, you may
• use a colon to introduce the quotation for a more formal tone.
Mason considers it a foolish idea: “The plan is obviously flawed” (443).
•
use a comma to establish a pause.
“The plan,” according to Mason, “is obviously flawed” (443).
•
omit any attributive punctuation when the quote is integral to the sentence.
Mason holds the plan to be “obviously flawed” (443).
Do not enclose the parenthetical citation within the closing quotation mark. Insert
the sentence period after the citation.
Block Quotations Type the quotation; if it runs more than four typed lines it
must be set off from your text. To do this, strike a return to start a new line.
Indent the quotation one inch from the left margin by dragging both indent
markers from “0” to “1” of the ruler. This replaces opening and closing quotation
marks; do not add any quotation marks that are not in the original. Continue to
double-space all lines. If the entire quotation consists of dialogue, do not
surround it with quotation marks. Place the parenthetical reference after the end
punctuation for the sentence. Do not insert another period after the citation:
Medical Shakespearians are fond of speculating on the manner and cause
of Shakespeare’s death. The Shakespeare Data Bank, an ongoing project
to computerize all information about Shakespeare’s life and works,
currently lists over twenty possible causes of death, including Bright’s
disease, [. . .] shock over his daughter Judith’s marriage, writer’s cramp,
[. . .] and “intolerable entrails.” (Epstein 36)
Do not indent the first line of a block quote unless you are quoting two or more
paragraphs. In that case, indent the first line of each paragraph another quarter
inch—but do not indent the first line if it did not begin a paragraph in the original
source. If it did, indent only the first lines of any subsequent paragraphs.
A Quotation (or a Title) within a Quotation Use single quotation marks to
enclose a quotation within a quotation. Do not insert a space between any single
and double quotation marks. Italicize titles of a longer works. Capitalize the first
letter of the embedded quotation if it is a complete sentence in itself.
•
•
•
“I know what I heard,” replied Doak. “You said, ‘The cat is black.’”
“The poems alludes to Steven’s ‘Sunday Morning,’” noted Miller.
“I can’t believe Trudy loved Popsicles for Two!” exclaimed Josie.
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Quotations, Poetry If you quote no more than three lines of verse, put them in
quotation marks and incorporate the quotation into your paragraph. To separate
the quoted lines, use a slash with a space on each side.
Lines 23 and 24 from Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress” once saved Sylvia
from an empty and unfulfilling relationship: “And yonder all before us
lie / Deserts of vast eternity.” They broke up soon after she read the poem.
Treat verse quotations of more than three lines like block quotes: set them apart
from your text. To do this, strike a return to start a new line. Indent all lines one
inch from the left margin—unless the quotation involves special spacing. Do not
add any quotation marks that do not appear in the original. Continue to doublespace all lines. Place the parenthetical citation—which references the numbered
lines of the poem—after the end punctuation (if any exists) of the final line of the
quotation. Do not add a period after the citation, even if no end punctuation
appears after the final quoted line. Strike a return and return the left margin
marker to the 0” mark. (See MLA 3.7.3, 6.3 for examples.)
The first lines of Linda Pastan’s poem, “The Death of a Parent,” perfectly express the
startled awareness of the generational shift many feel upon losing a parent.
Move to the front
of the line
a voice says, and suddenly
there is nobody
left standing between you
and the world, to take
the first blows
on their shoulders. (1-8)
Quotations, Drama When quoting dialogue between characters in a play, craft a
clear, grammatically-correct sentence that accurately introduces or incorporates
the quotation. Set the quoted dialogue like a block quote, indenting the text one
inch from the left margin. Begin each part of the dialogue with the appropriate
character’s name written in all capital letters: SAM. Insert a period and a space
and start the quotation. Indent all subsequent lines in that character’s speech an
additional quarter inch by first setting a hanging indent at 11/4 inch. Hit the return
key when the dialogue shifts to another character. Reproduce stage directions
exactly as they appear in the original source. (See MLA 3.7.4 for examples.)
John Proctor, in Arthur Miller’s The Crucible, regains his honor when he refuses to
yield to the tyranny of superstition and lies:
HALE. Man, you will hang! You cannot!
PROCTOR, his eyes full of tears. I can. And there’s your first marvel,
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that I can. (144)
Ellipsis (see also example on A.7)
An ellipsis (usually three spaced periods, and usually enclosed within brackets)
indicates that material was omitted from a quoted text, prose, or poetry: “I stand
before you [. . .] without having a lawful right to vote.” The periods denote the
omitted material, while the brackets help distinguish between your ellipsis and
one that might appear in the original source; MLA has made brackets optional,
but most teachers prefer their use. Be careful to accurately reflect the author’s
purpose, or you might leave the reader with a different interpretation than what
the author intended.
An ellipsis is not necessary when quoting only a word or phrase; quotation marks
are enough to show you left out some or most of a sentence.
Susan B. Anthony called it a “downright mockery” to remind women of their
freedoms when they are refused by their government the right to vote.
For an ellipsis at the end of a sentence, bracket three spaced periods and place the
sentence period after the closing bracket.
Anthony continued, “To them this government has not just powers [. . .].”
Do the same when omitting one or more sentences. But when omitting material
from the middle of one sentence to the middle of another, use only three spaced
periods within a set of brackets.
“To them this government is not a democracy. [. . .]. It is an odious aristocracy,
[. . .] which ordains all men sovereigns, all women subjects, carries dissension,
discord, and rebellion into every home of the nation.”
When a parenthetical reference follows the bracketed ellipsis at the end of a
sentence, place the sentence period after the closing parenthesis of the citation.
They “define a citizen to be a person [. . .] entitled to hold office [. . .]” (Anthony 58).
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PARTS OF SPEECH / THE SENTENCE
“Grammar is the logic of speech, even as logic is the grammar of reason.”
— Richard C. Trench (1807-1886)
*
*
*
The following is a brief overview of the parts of speech. Keep in mind that many
words can be used as more than one part of speech.
Nouns
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.
A proper noun names a particular person, place, thing, or idea.
A common noun names a class of people, places, things, or ideas.
A concrete noun names something that can be perceived by the senses.
An abstract noun names an idea, a characteristic, or a quality.
A collective noun names a group.
A compound noun is a noun made of two or more words.
Pronouns
•
•
•
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun or a group of nouns.
A personal pronoun takes the place of a specific person or thing and
indicates the person speaking (first person), the person being addressed
(second person), or the person or thing being considered (third person).
A possessive pronoun takes the place of a possessive noun (Jo’s/hers,
Sam’s/his, the children’s/theirs).
Verbs
•
•
•
A verb is a word that expresses action or a state of being.
An action verb tells what something or someone does.
A linking verb serves as a link between two words in a sentence.
(The noun or pronoun that is the subject of the sentence is joined with the
word or words that identify or describe it.) The most commonly used
linking verbs are forms of the verb to be.
Adjectives
•
•
•
An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun.
Articles—a, an and the—are the most frequently used adjectives.
A and an are indefinite articles; they indicate that the noun they precede
refers to a part of a general group. Use an before nouns that begin with a
vowel sound. The is a definite article; its use indicates that the noun it
precedes refers to a particular person, place, thing, or idea.
A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun and begins with a
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capital letter.
Adverbs
•
•
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
An adverb tells how, when, where, why, how often, or how much.
The word not is considered an adverb. Other negative words, such as
nowhere, barely, and never, can also serve as adverbs.
Prepositions
•
•
A preposition is a word or group of words that shows the relationship
between its object (the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition) and
another word in the sentence. Prepositions are words like about, above,
after, behind, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in,
near, of, on, to, since, through, toward, up, and with.
A compound preposition consists of two or more words, like
according to, as for, because of, due to, in spite of, and with regard to.
Conjunctions
•
•
A conjunction is a word that joins—or coordinates—words (nouns to
nouns, verbs to verbs) or groups of words (phrase to phrase). There are
seven: and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet).
Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join equal parts of a sentence
(both/and, either/or, not only/but also).
Interjections
•
An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses emotion or exclamation
(Oh! Darn! Rats!).
Clauses
•
•
•
•
A clause is a part of a sentence made up of a group of related words
containing a subject and a predicate. A predicate is the verb that shows
action initiated by the subject or gives information about the subject.
An independent clause can stand alone (i.e., it contains a subject and a
predicate, and is a complete thought).
A dependent clause is an incomplete thought that cannot stand alone as a
sentence.
An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or a
pronoun.
NOTE: Adjective clauses essential to the meaning of the sentence are not set off
with commas: “The big dog that has fleas is the sweetest dog in the room.” If an
adjective clause is nonessential to the meaning of the sentence, it is set off with
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
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commas: “The big dog, which has fleas, is the sweetest dog in the room.” (See
also that, which, who; D.7). HINT: Think of the commas as hooks that can pull
out what’s nonessential and leave the focus of the sentence unchanged.
Sentence Errors
•
•
A sentence fragment is a group of words (usually a phrase or a dependent
clause) that has been mistakenly capitalized and punctuated as if it were a
complete sentence. Avoid sentence fragments, especially if the purpose of
your writing is serious, formal, technical, or academic. However,
maturing writers with a solid command of voice and tone may find the
occasional sentence fragment useful—as long as it is not overused. If you
choose to experiment with sentence fragments to enhance voice and tone,
make sure your teacher understands what you are doing.
A run-on sentence is two or more independent clauses that run together
without proper punctuation. When only a comma joins the clauses, the
error is called a comma splice. To correct a run-on sentence, use a
semicolon or a comma and a conjunction to join the clauses, or separate
them by making each a sentence.
Punctuation
“I’m exhausted. I spent all morning putting in a comma and all afternoon taking it out.”
—Oscar Wilde (1854-1900)
*
*
*
End Marks: Some simple reminders
•
•
•
Do not use a question mark at the end of a declarative sentence containing
an indirect question (They asked if I had been practicing my cartwheels).
Use an exclamation mark sparingly! It is best to rely on strong word
choices to convey tone!!!
Most abbreviations conclude with a period. However, certain
abbreviations are written without periods, such as the postal service
abbreviation for states (two uppercase letters). When unsure, consult a
dictionary. (See Names of Persons, A.3; and Geographic Names, A.4
for an expanded discussion.)
NOTE: When a sentence ends with a question mark, an exclamation point, or an
abbreviation that requires a period, do not add another period to end the sentence.
Commas
Comma use can be very subjective. Novice writers often use commas generously,
which can result in halting, stop-and-go writing. But in time, the attentive student
develops a better sense about commas and uses them sparingly. It takes practice.
Understanding the rules and examples that follow will help, but they provide only
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the broadest of applications. When in doubt, consult your teacher.
In General:
• Use commas to separate three or more items in a series: “The colors of
the American flag are red, white, and blue.”
NOTE: While the comma before the and in a series of single words is optional
(and therefore subjective), MLA says to insert it. Always insert a comma before
the final and with compound items: “My favorite sandwiches are peanut butter
and jelly, peanut butter and banana, and peanut butter and pickle.”
•
Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives preceding a noun.
NOTE: Sometimes the adjective closest to the noun should be considered part of
the noun; do not use a comma before such an adjective. If unsure, transpose the
adjectives or insert the word and between them; if the meaning of the sentence
doesn’t change, use a comma.
•
Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, yet,
so, or for) when joining two independent clauses.
NOTE: You may omit the comma before a coordinating conjunction if the
independent clauses are very short. If the independent clauses already contain
several commas, use a semicolon rather than a comma before the coordinating
conjunction.
•
•
•
•
Use a comma after interjections at the beginning of a sentence, such as
Yes, No, and Well (No, I haven’t been using your toothbrush).
Use a comma after introductory participial phrases: “Having learned
about introductory commas, I had no problem with the essay.”
Use a comma after introductory prepositional phrases, unless the phrase
is brief and the sentence remains clear without the comma:
“Between the waters, the calm surface seemed to cry for a caddis fly.”
Use commas to set off an appositive or an appositive phrase: “The big
dog, which has fleas, is the sweetest dog in the room.”
NOTE: An essential appositive, which gives necessary, specific information about
a noun, is not set off by commas.
•
•
Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions: “My stomach, for
example, tends to complain a lot.”
Use commas to set off words in direct address: “You, Sir, are a bore.”
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
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Colons
The colon is internal punctuation; insert one space only between the colon and the
next word.
 Use a colon before a statement or principle that illustrates, explains,
elaborates, or restates the preceding material.
 Use a colon before a long or formal quotation.
 Use a colon before a list of things, especially following words such as
these, as follows, or the following. Do not use a colon if a verb or a
preposition precedes the list, as in the two incorrect examples below.
“My favorite things are: bugs, trees, books, and you.”
“I will travel with: Sue, Boo, Hugh, and Lou.”
NOTE: Lowercase the first letter of an explanation, elaboration, or restatement
that follows a colon: “I studied her plan intently: her madness lay in her method.”
However, capitalize the first letter of a rule or principle following a colon, as in
“Adhere to the tardy policy: You are to be in the classroom when the bell rings.”
Semicolons
•
•
•
•
Use a semicolon between independent clauses that are not joined by a
coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, yet, so, and for).
Use a semicolon to separate clauses containing commas when those
clauses appear as items in a series (I have the following: bees and
bonnets; ants, pants, and aloe; and worries, woes, and wisdom).
Use a semicolon between independent clauses that are joined by a
conjunctive adverb, such as however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless,
furthermore, meanwhile, and consequently.
Use a semicolon between independent clauses that are joined by
certain transitional expressions such as for example, as a result, that is,
in other words, for instance, and in fact.
Apostrophes
•
•
•
Use an apostrophe and an s for the possessive case of a singular or
plural noun not ending in s, whether common or proper: the cat’s meow,
Joe’s haircut, people’s vote, the Children’s Theater.
Use an apostrophe and an s for the possessive case of a singular noun
that ends in s, x, or z, whether common or proper: bus’s schedule, the
kibbutz’s security, the aviatrix’s fame, Venus’s beauty, Dickens’s works.
Use an apostrophe alone for the possessive case of a plural noun ending
in s, whether common or proper: the students’ handbooks, the kittens’
purring, the Williamses’ driveway, the Dickenses’ economic woes.
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
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•
•
•
•
Use an apostrophe alone for the possessive case of nouns that are
singular in meaning but plural in form, whether common or proper:
politics’ beginnings, a species’ traits, United States’ borders, the Montana
Bobcats’ rivalry with the Grizzlies.
Put only the last word of a compound noun, such as sister-in-law’s or
someone else’s, in the possessive form. (But for plurals, add an s to the
first word: sons-in-law, maids-in-waiting.)
If two or more persons possess an item jointly, only the last person
named should be put in the possessive form (Sy and Sue’s tree). If two or
more persons possess an item individually, put each of their names in the
possessive form (Fay’s and Ray’s convertibles).
Use an apostrophe for the possessive of singular, indefinite pronouns
like each other’s and everybody’s. Do not use an apostrophe with
possessive personal pronouns such as its, hers, his, theirs, and whose.
Plurals and Contractions
• In most cases, add only an s to form the plural of numerals (1860s, nines),
phrases (dos and don’ts, ifs and buts) and capitalized consonants (Ns,
BAs). Add an ‘s to form the plural of capitalized vowels (A’s, I’s) and all
lowercased letters (p’s, t’s, i’s, e’s).
• Use an apostrophe in place of letters omitted in contractions. But avoid
using contractions (it’s, can’t, won’t, shouldn’t) in formal and academic
writing. Such devices are conversational in origin and best suited for
dialogue and informal writing.
Parentheses
•
•
Use parentheses to surround material that is extra or of minor importance
in a sentence. Any punctuation marks needed by the parenthetical
material belong inside the parentheses; punctuation marks needed by the
sentence as a whole belong outside of the parentheses. A complete
sentence enclosed by parentheses contained within another sentence
should neither be capitalized nor include end punctuation.
Use parentheses to surround numbers or letters indicating items in a list
that is run into your text.
Hyphens
•
At the end of a line, use a hyphen to divide a word between syllables.
The following guidelines generally apply: (1) do not divide one-syllable
words, (2) do not divide a word and leave a single letter on a line,
(3) divide a word containing a double consonant between the two
consonants (but if the double consonant comes at the end of a root word
with a suffix, divide the word between the root and the suffix), and (4) if a
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
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•
•
word already contains a hyphen, divide the word only at the hyphen.
Use a hyphen after any prefix joined to a proper noun or a proper
adjective.
Use a hyphen after the prefixes all-, ex- (meaning “former”), and self-.
But do not use a hyphen after the prefixes anti-, co-, multi-, non-, over-,
post-, pre-, re-, semi-, sub-, un-, and under-, unless a hyphen is required to
eliminate confusion between words that look alike but are different in
meaning and pronunciation (e.g., re-cover, as in re-covering a chair, as
opposed to recovering from an illness).
NOTE: Use a hyphen after prefixes like anti- when they join a word beginning
with i; the double vowel will make the word hard to recognize.
•
Use a hyphen in a compound adjective that precedes the noun it
modifies (four-minute mile, two-hour stint, newly-hatched egg).
NOTE: Do not use a hyphen when one of the modifiers is an adverb that ends in
-ly, or with too, very, or much.
ALSO: Certain compound adjectives are always hyphenated, even when they
follow the nouns they modify. Other compound adjectives are actually single
words. When unsure, consult a print dictionary or Merriam-Webster Online.
•
•
Use a hyphen when spelling out a fraction.
Use a hyphen between the two numerals when spelling out two-word
numbers such as fifty-two, twenty-one, and ninety-nine.
Dashes
•
Use dashes to set off and add emphasis to parenthetical content in a
sentence.
NOTE: Usually commas or parentheses are used in such situations, but when
used infrequently, dashes can add clarity and crispness to the supplemental
information.
•
•
•
Use a dash to indicate an abrupt change in thought within a sentence
(I considered going anyway—who cared what he thought?—but I
remained home).
Use a dash to indicate a hesitation or interruption in dialogue or speech
(I told Mavis she would be—I’m sorry, am I boring you?).
Use a dash to set off an appositive or an appositive phrase.
NOTE: Usually commas, and sometimes colons, set off appositives.
•
Insert a dash by typing two hyphens or by typing an em dash on a
computer. In either case, leave no spaces before or after the dash, or
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
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between the hyphens substituting for the dash.
Quotation Marks
•
•
•
(see also A.6-8)
Use quotation marks to set off dialogue and direct quotations.
Use quotation marks to enclose titles of short works, such as short
stories, poems, newspaper and magazine articles, chapters and parts of a
book, one-act plays, songs, etc.
Use quotation marks to enclose slang terms, unfamiliar technical terms,
and other unusual uses of a word.
NOTE: Avoid using “quotation marks” or italics to add emphasis!!! (And
obviously, avoid exclamation marks when possible, especially their excessive
use.) This ineffective gimmick often results in an inappropriate tone, especially in
research writing. Instead, focus on strong and appropriate word choices.
Punctuation of Direct Quotations (see also A.17)
•
•
Use quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation.
Use single quotation marks to surround a quotation within a quotation.
Do not insert a space between the double quotation mark and the single.
NOTE: A direct quotation begins with a capital letter, unless it is clearly just a
portion of a sentence and is not intended to stand by itself. When a direct
quotation is interrupted by explanatory remarks or attribution, such as he said or
said Mary, the second part of the quotation begins with a lowercase letter—unless
it is a complete sentence.
• Only the words actually spoken as dialogue lie within the quotation marks.
• The reader must be able to tell who is saying what.
If two people are speaking, only occasional attribution is necessary.
If more than two people are speaking, it is usually necessary
to attribute the dialogue at every line—unless the context of the
dialogue clearly identifies the speaker.
•
•
•
The line of dialogue should be indented with each new speaker, even if
it is just one word. However, if the dialogue begins, ends, or sits in the
middle of a narrative paragraph, it is not necessary to indent the dialogue
if it involves a single speaker.
Periods and commas always come before the closing quotation mark.
Exclamation points and question marks that directly relate to the dialogue
must come before the closing quotation mark.
Separate any attribution with a comma. If the attribution comes before the
dialogue, the comma follows the attribution. If the dialogue comes first,
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
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insert the comma after the last spoken word and before the closing
quotation mark.
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NOTES
Remember to never split an infinitive.
The passive voice should never be used.
Don’t overuse exclamation marks!!
Verbs has to agree with their subjects.
—Wm. Safire, How Not to Write:
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
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The Essential Misrules of Grammar, 2005
FORMS OF WRITING
6+1 Traits
The 6+1 Trait model provides accurate, reliable feedback to students and
teachers that helps guide instruction. Research has identified seven common
characteristics of good writing: ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence
fluency, conventions, and presentation; these serve as the framework for the 6+1
Trait model. Using the 6+1 Trait scoring guides allows students and teachers to
use a common language as we refine our idea of what good writing looks like.
The 6+1 Traits Model
Ideas: The heart of the message, the content of the piece, the main theme, with
details that enrich and develop that theme.
Organization: The internal structure, the thread of central meaning, the logical
and sometimes intriguing pattern of the ideas.
Voice: The unique perspective of the writer coming through in the piece with
honesty, conviction, integrity, and believability.
Word Choice: The use of rich, colorful, precise language that moves and
enlightens the reader—or the correct use of jargon that precisely informs and
instructs.
Sentence Fluency: The rhythm and flow of the language, the sound of word
patterns, the way in which the writing plays to the ear, not just to the eye.
Conventions: The adherence to the mechanics of spelling, grammar and usage,
capitalization, punctuation and paragraphing. The writing is sufficiently complex
to allow the writer to show skill in using a wide range of conventions.
Presentation: The form and presentation of the text.
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The Essay
Perhaps the most typical form of writing required of high school students is the
essay, a multi-paragraph composition on a single topic. Often, the assignment will
call for a presentation of ideas that is
• brief (500-1,500 words),
• formal (avoiding slang, clichés, contractions), and
• objective (remaining in the third-person voice—not using I or you).
The underlying purpose of the essay is usually to
• inform the reader by explaining ideas and presenting facts
(expository/explanatory/informative);
• influence the reader to accept an idea, adopt a point of view, or perform an action
(persuasive/argumentative);
• tell a story (narrative); or
• make the reader see, hear, feel, taste, and smell something—at least in the
imagination (descriptive).
The following model often proves to be an effective pattern in which to present
such essays. SGHS students are encouraged to become proficient at this fiveparagraph essay model before experimenting with alternative models.
Model: Writing the Five-Paragraph Essay
Introduction
1. Craft hook
2. Introduce topic; provide pertinent background information
3. Narrow from topic to thesis
4. State thesis
Body
1. State topic of paragraph
2. Generally expand topic
3. Provide specific, detailed support from source(s)
4. Explain how the details support topic
5. Bring paragraph to completion
The actual number of body paragraphs should be
determined by the logical, organized expansion of the thesis.
Conclusion
1. Remind the reader of your thesis
2. Summarize main points of body paragraphs, but avoid
repetition
3. Draw a conclusion; leave the reader with
something to ponder (answer “So what?”)
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Below are the basic elements of an essay:
A single sentence that clearly and simply states the central,
Thesis
controlling idea of the essay
Statement:
Organization:
The logical and effective arrangement and sequence of ideas
Unity:
The presentation of just one central idea without digression
into irrelevant or unrelated ideas
Development:
Thorough explanation and support of all general statements;
the gradual enlargement and clarification of the thesis
Coherence:
Ideas connected clearly, smoothly, and effectively;
relationships among ideas are logically displayed.
Because it anchors the writing by providing a clear point of origin and a clear
destination, the thesis is a critical component of a successful essay. It can be
difficult to compose so it deserves a closer look. Below is one approach.
1. Start with a general topic, like the Bozeman Trail.
2. Limit that to something more manageable, such as the trail’s purpose—>
providing a faster route for settlers and miners headed west.
3. Further consideration leads to the inevitable conclusion and thus the
thesis: “The Bozeman Trail paved the way for a clash of cultures destined
for conflict.”
You have your focus; the rest of the paper will provide the support.
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The Comparison-Contrast Essay
Comparison and contrast are important means to the development of
understanding. For example, using comparison-contrast while studying literature
helps students define and describe the particular characteristics of a particular
writer or work by showing the general category to which the subject belongs and
also by differentiating it from all other members of the category.
Comparisons and contrasts may be made for a variety of specific purposes:
• to present information about one topic by relating it to another with which
your audience is familiar;
• to inform about both topics, by relating them to some general principle
which would apply to both and with which your audience is presumably
familiar; and
• to inform about some general principle or idea by comparing and
contrasting topics with which your audience is familiar.
Two fundamental methods of organizing a comparison-contrast essay are
available. You can
1. present all your points about your first topic in your first body
paragraph(s), then present all your ideas about your second topic; or
2. subdivide your thesis into its major aspects, creating body paragraphs for
each aspect, then merging comparative references to both topics
throughout all paragraphs.
Method (2) is the superior method. In this method you refer continually to both
topics, sometimes within the same sentence, while reminding your reader of the
point of your discussion. You do not need to repeat your points unnecessarily;
you can document those points as you raise them and avoid making a reader with
a poor memory reread previous sections. Caution: as you make your comparison,
avoid a tennis-ball effect, in which you bounce your subject back and forth. Such
a method will bore the reader and will prevent you from adequately developing
your points.
The following list of transitional words may help express the relationships that
exist among ideas in your comparison-contrast essay:
but
yet
or
nor
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
besides
similarly
in contrast
like too
in addition to
however
whereas
both
just so . . . so also
but . . . also
on the contrary
as well as
on the other hand
27
The Essay Test
An essay question provides an excellent means to assess higher-level thinking
skills and comprehensive understanding of a course’s content. Essay questions
allow those students who are truly prepared on test day to shine above other
students who may merely be lucky on an objective test. It is easy to spot the
bluffs in an essay by an unprepared, uncertain student.
To prepare, review readings and class notes for topics you believe your teacher
will emphasize in a prompt. Target these emphasized areas by developing your
own essay questions or by constructing a practice outline or graphic organizer.
On test day, read and evaluate the essay question carefully to understand what the
teacher expects. Look for key words that precisely indicate what will be expected
from your response. Below are frequently used key words and their purpose.
analyze:
compare:
contrast:
describe:
discuss:
evaluate:
explain:
summarize:
trace:
break the subject down into its essential parts and critically
examine those parts
show similarities and differences between elements
show differences between elements
present the features of the subject in detail
tell what you know about the subject in a balanced response
judge the subject carefully, giving positive and negative aspects
clarify and interpret the details of the subject
give a brief account of the main features of the subject
follow the development of the subject step-by-step in
chronological order
Below is an effective process to plan and write essay tests successfully.
1. Read the question/direction statement carefully. Identify key words and
concepts. Be sure to respond to all parts of the question.
2. Plan your response. Briefly list, on scratch paper, the main ideas of your
response and important supporting details; let the question guide your
organization; decide how many paragraphs you will write and the topics of
each.
3. Echo the prompt in your opening sentence or incorporate the prompt into
your thesis.
4. Provide sufficient supporting details for each generalization. Be sure to
demonstrate how thoroughly you understand the topic. Accurately use the
vocabulary of the subject area.
5. Write deliberately, composing each sentence in your mind before writing.
(You won’t have time for major revising.)
6. Allow time to proofread your response briefly. Make corrections neatly,
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
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e.g., draw a single line through any deletions.
Annotated Bibliography
An annotated bibliography examines the accuracy, relevance, and quality of
sources. A listing of each source is followed by an annotation (see C.14-24;
25-35 regarding the proper formatting of entries). The annotation is a brief
paragraph (often approximately 150 words) summarizing the scope of the
work. It also examines one or more of the following areas:
• The authority or background of the author: Does the author present
material as fact, opinion, or propaganda? Is the perspective objective and
the voice free of bias? Does the author present valid research, or is the
material largely unsupported? Note any errors or omissions.
• The appropriateness of the source for the audience: Does the work
target a general audience or a more specialized one? How does the source
fit your needs—is it too basic, too advanced, just right?
• The source in relation to others you have cited: How does it compare with
other works you have read on the same topic? Does it update other sources?
Does it largely substantiate what you’ve read, or does it radically depart from the
findings of other writers?
• How this source in particular treats your topic: Is the coverage of the
topic extensive or does it lack breadth and depth? Is it a primary source,
one that originated during the period under study? Or is it a secondary
source that provides a certain perspective as it interprets and/or analyzes a
primary source? Below are generic and specific examples.
Primary Sources
Generic
Specific
Court Transcript ...... The Nuremburg Trials
Speech .................... First Inaugural Address
Film Footage...................... WWII Newsreel
•
•
Secondary Sources
Generic
Specific
History Book............ Infamy on Trial
Journal Article ...... “Nothing to Fear”
Documentary....................... The War
How well the source is written: How would you evaluate the writer’s
style? Is it clear? Is the work well-organized? Is it easy to read or
choppy and repetitive?
How the source has been reviewed by critics: Are critics largely in
agreement about the quality of the source, or have you found reviews with
varying perspectives? Is the source considered an important work in that
particular field? Do critics recommend it?
Sample annotated bibliography entry for a book:
Kendall, Paul Murray. Richard the Third. New York: Norton, 1955. Print.
The author, a history professor at Ohio University and an authority on fifteenth-century
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European history, uses primary sources to document his thesis that history has unjustly
maligned England’s King Richard III. Kendall departs from the paths taken by many
other historians, arguing for the restoration of Richard’s reputation. He does not,
however, blindly excuse Richard’s actions. He readily admits to the king’s culpability in
some instances, particularly his practice of eliminating his enemies. But Kendall also
sensibly frames these acts within the time period: most rulers eliminated those who
threatened them. The author makes a strong case. Kendall details how Richard’s
successor, Henry VII, had much to gain by vilifying Richard, and that Henry’s historians
wrote to burnish his image. Extensively footnoted, Richard the Third documents the
merits of Kendall’s sources and credibly discounts those on which other historians rely.
Departing from the status quo, Kendall provides fresh insight and intriguing theories that
challenge Richard’s supposed villainy, and so challenges history’s acceptance of what
had become a stagnant discourse.
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Formatting Your Paper
Documents formatted according to MLA guidelines will have
• Times New Roman, size 12 font;
• one-inch margins at the top, bottom, left, and right;
• double-line spacing with no extra returns inserted after the heading, the
title, or between paragraphs;
• a left-aligned, four-line heading and a right-aligned header to number your
pages; and
• a final page with the sources cited in the paper (for research papers only).
Your teachers will expect you to follow these guidelines and will grade
accordingly. It is easier for them to evaluate each paper on its merits when each
adheres to MLA’s settings. It levels the field, so to speak, allowing teachers to
focus on what is important: the content.
Let’s say you are to write a three-page paper and you use size 13 Cambria font.
You compose and submit the required three pages. Unfortunately, when your
teacher instructs you to resubmit the paper in Times New Roman size 12 font, the
length of your paper will shrink to little more than two pages.
Or . . .
Let’s say you’ve composed your paper in TNR size 12 font and 1.25” left and
right margins. (Caution: most word processing programs come defaulted to
1.25” left and right margins. Be sure to check your margins.) When your teacher
suggests you change the margins to MLA’s one-inch formatting, your paper will
shrink roughly one-half page in length.
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Word is configured differently on different computers, so you may need to figure
out those settings on your own. The same holds true when using other word
processing programs.
The Formal Essay
On the following page is a sample of the first page of a formal essay on Romeo
and Juliet. Compare the sample to the formatting of your document to see if you
are on the right track. (Keep in mind that teachers from every department at
SGHS will assign formal essays. You will be expected to observe the
fundamentals of MLA when writing for all teachers, not only those in the English
Department.)
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32
Gillis 1
Lorraine Gillis
Mr. Wolff
English I/4
15 March 2014
Fated to Be Doomed
Fate is a main character in William Shakespeare’s play, Romeo and Juliet. Fate has
no lines yet it is central in many scenes and casts a very long shadow, one that darkens
any future for Romeo and Juliet. The two young lovers’ impulsive acts bring about their
deaths, and at times it seems that coincidence is the only factor in their demise, but this is
not so. Shakespeare’s story would not have had such a lasting impact over the centuries
if he had relied on mere coincidence to bring forth tragedy. Where’s the drama in that?
Instead, his use of fate as the thread weaving the elements of the story together is far
more interesting. As fate intervenes, the thread that stitches together the love between
Romeo and Juliet, as well as their lives, unravels. By the end of the play, Romeo and
Juliet are indeed “fortune’s fools.”
Shakespeare does not reveal the reason behind the bitter, age-old feud between the
Montagues and Capulets, because the reason does not matter to the story. It is the feud
that is important. The children of these two foes are doomed the moment they fall in love
because of the conflict between their families. This conflict is so serious that it often
“disturbs [the] peace” with brawls in the streets of Verona. The very idea of befriending
the enemy, let alone falling in love, is unthinkable. The feud spawns hate and hate forces
the two lovers to marry in secret. That secret bars Romeo from preventing Mercutio’s
untimely death—which drives him to kill Tybalt. Romeo’s banishment brings Juliet
great grief and initiates a series of mishaps that concludes with each committing suicide
in the Capulet crypt. These seemingly random events are like dominos, each falling
against the next; whatever chance event started the feud acted as the first domino,
dooming the rest by making it impossible for any domino to remain standing once the
first fell. It was likewise impossible for Romeo and Juliet to find lasting happiness. Fate
was too great a force, and its momentum pulled the thread of doom.
The reader might think each event is a terrible coincidence, but Shakespeare’s intent
was to keep the reader on edge, to fill the reader with the same hopelessness that Romeo
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NOTES
The role of a writer is not to say what we all can say,
but what we are unable to say.
~Anaïs Nin
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RESEARCH WRITING
“Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose.”
—Zora Neale Hurston (1891-1960)
*
*
*
Writing based on research presents the findings and conclusions of a student’s
investigation into a subject. The purpose of such writing is to bring together
information that has not previously been brought together, to provide fresh insight
on the topic, and to use evidence from the research in support of a thesis.
The writer of a research paper usually follows these steps:
1. selects a topic;
2. limits the topic so that it can be successfully handled in the available time
and with the available resources;
3. creates a working outline to guide the investigation;
4. compiles a working bibliography of potentially pertinent resources;
5. reads and takes notes from the pertinent material;
6. organizes the notes and prepares the final outline;
7. drafts, revises, and proofreads the paper; and
8. documents the sources used in the paper, including a list of works cited.
Documentation is a process that requires an attentive mind and a keen eye for
detail. To document material is to cite sources by creating citations in the paper
that reference the sources used. Acknowledging the source of everything that has
been borrowed from others is critical to the integrity of your work. To do
otherwise is to commit plagiarism (see discussion on next page).
How do you know when you must document something? You must document
when you
• use information that most people would not already know;
• use specific details like statistics;
• use someone else’s ideas, opinions, perspective, or arguments;
• use direct quotations (the exact wording found in your source);
and when you
• paraphrase the words of another. (Students sometimes think that by
putting material in their own words they have gained ownership of the
idea. This is not so. Think about it. When you read Robert Munsch’s The
Paper Bag Princess to your younger sister, you are reading Munsch’s
exact words. But if you later retell the story to the little girl next door, you
could not claim the story or the idea behind the story was yours simply
because you told it in your own words.
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You do not need to cite
• your own ideas,
• common knowledge (“Parades often incorporate patriotic themes”), or
• familiar quotes or proverbs (“Two wrongs don’t make a right”).
Let your common sense direct you, but when in doubt, cite the source. It is better
to cite unnecessarily than to misrepresent your research.
Plagiarism
To plagiarize is to use another’s ideas or expressions in your writing without
acknowledging the source. It is intellectual theft. You are certain to use another’s
words and ideas in your research paper, but you must not give the impression that
those words or ideas are yours. If the information is new to you and pertinent to
your topic, you will have recorded it in your notes. If the information is in your
notes, cite the source.
Copyright Infringement Copyright infringement has become increasingly
problematic as students rely more heavily on the Internet for their sources. Many
seem to think that online material may be reproduced and distributed freely.
However, most Internet material is protected by copyright law and should be
treated in the same manner as printed works.
MLA Documentation
Most publications, schools, and college and university departments adopt one of
three documentation systems for research papers: Modern Language Association
(MLA), American Psychological Association (APA), or The Chicago Manual of
Style (Chicago). While the three systems differ in style, each shares the same
broad principles. Sweet Grass High School has adopted MLA for research
writing because of its simplicity and wide use in colleges and universities—
primarily in the humanities. You are likely to use all three styles in college
because different fields of study utilize different documentation systems. English
departments, for instance, typically use MLA. History and social studies
departments often rely on Chicago, and the sciences prefer APA. At SGHS you
will apply MLA documentation to all research, regardless of department. Our
thinking is that mastering one style, like MLA, makes it easier to master another,
like APA.
The Internet
The Internet and other electronic media make available a vast array of primary
and secondary source material. Effectively using such resources, however,
requires special attention—attention not usually required with print material.
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Evaluating web sites: does a web site’s impressive appearance make it a
credible source? Print material is fixed and therefore easier to track. Web sites,
on the other hand, are fluid. Information you found on a site one week might be
edited out the next. The site might move or even disappear. It can also be
difficult to evaluate the reliability and authority of a web site. Is it biased?
accurate? current? verifiable? Who is responsible for posting the information on
the site? Is the author an expert in the field, such as a licensed nutritionist, or is
he a wannabe expert writing in his parents’ basement? Remember that the
Internet is not an entity that screens postings for credibility; anyone can post
virtually anything.
Do not limit yourself It can be tempting to conduct most of your research online
because of the ease the Internet presents in finding relevant and current sources,
but relying on Internet sources alone is rarely considered adequate research for a
paper. Sources like lectures, documentaries, interviews, and primary documents
provide pertinent information and valuable perspective—and are often
unavailable online. Sometimes the print version of a source has information that
is not available in its online version.
Library Online Databases Online services can quickly locate useful information
from a variety of reliable sources. The SGHS library subscribes to EBSCO which
contains thousands of full-text files on a wide range of topics from magazines,
newspapers, books, broadcasts, and more.
On the other hand . . . Electronic mail, personal home pages, and online chats
may prove helpful in sharing ideas but are not considered acceptable resources for
academic research. Using the Internet for academic research requires training,
practice, patience, attention to detail—and guidance. Be sure to check with your
teacher about the Internet sources you are considering.
NOTE: Wikipedia, while hugely popular, is not considered a reliable,
authoritative source for research writing—and Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales
agrees. In an interview with Time magazine, he said that teachers are correct
about Wikipedia not being a legitimate source: “People do need to be aware of
how it is created and edited so they can treat it with the appropriate caution. [. . .].
The site is a wonderful starting point for research. But it’s only a starting point
because there’s always a chance that there’s something wrong, and you should
check your sources if you are writing a paper.”
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Bib Cards and Note Cards
Index cards have long been used for research because of the simplicity and
flexibility they offer. Smaller index cards (3” x 5”) are for recording and coding
sources and for taking notes. Your teacher may prefer other methods, but since
we cannot cover them all, we will stick with the basics here. We will leave it to
your teachers to introduce other methods.
Bib Cards
On 3” x 5” index cards, record the bibliographic information for each source, one
source per bib card. Assign a source code to each card/source; this is usually a
letter of the alphabet. One source will be coded A, the next B, and so on. (The
codes have no other significance, so it does not matter which source is coded with
what letter.) Write the code in the upper-right corner of the bib card. The codes
will help you (and your instructor) track your notes and citations back to that
source. Be consistent in this; the integrity of your research is tied to your
diligence in coding. The example below is a standard method typically taught at
SGHS, but be sure to adhere to your teacher’s preferences.
NOTE: The first thing you should do when taking notes from one of your sources
is to write that source’s code in the upper right corner of your note card. Now
and then a student forgets this important step, which is unfortunate, because the
source code links the bib card to the note card. Carelessness with coding makes it
virtually impossible to cite the source correctly.
Source A is Richard Gloucester’s book, This House of York, published in London
by Old World Publishing. The title of the book is underlined on the card as a
reminder to italicize it on the works cited page. “Publishing” was not included on
the bib card and will not be included on the works cited page because MLA
abbreviates the names of publishers (see C.37-38).
3 X 5 note card
3x5 bib card
A (Source code)
Outline Info.
Code)
A (Source
Slug here
Gloucester, Richard. This House
of York. London: Old World,
2005.
Note (in words and phrases only) here.
“Complete sentences are appropriate for
direct quotations only.”
DQ or P
of
Page Number
Source
Do not record the order of the note card until you match the order of the
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
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cards to your citations, one of the last steps in the process.
Note Cards
Below are four random note cards from a paper on King Richard III. Notice
how the notes are merely fragments, not complete sentences. This is
important: students can unintentionally plagiarize when they have too much
of the original phrasing or sentence structure before them as they draft.
When notes are fragmented, the student is forced to use his own words and
sentence structure.
I.A. b
A
D
Shakespeare’s Play: Relationship
w/wife Anne
Childhood
son of Richard, Duke of York
and Cicely Neville; brothers
Ed. IV, George of Clarence
P
III.B.a
“Shakespeare’s relationship with his
wife, Anne, was devious,
manipulative, and deceitful at times.”
p. 22
DQ
p. 456
The information on this card, from page
22 of source A, will be found in the first
section of the final draft.
The information on this card, from page
456 of source D, will be found in the third
section of the final draft.
III.C.a
IV.C.c
C
F
The Twins: Henry’s Motives
Bosworth Field: Richard’s Death
declared legitimate; threat to his
claim
Few faithful; charged across field to
Henry Tudor; Richard last to
survive, calling “Treason! Treason!
Treason!”
P
p. 86
P
The information on this card, from page
86 of source C, will be found in the third
section of the final draft.
p. 1
The information on this card, from
source F, will be found in the fourth
section of the final draft.
Coded Sources (as they appear on the bib cards):
A: Gloucester, Dick. This House of York. London: Old World, 2005. Print.
C: Anjou, Margaret. “The Twins in the Tower.” Smithsonian June 1995: 85-89. Print.
D: Asimov, Issac. “Richard III.” Asimov’s Guide to Shakespeare. Random, 2003. Print.
F: “Legends: The Battle of Bosworth.” Richard III Society. Richard III Society, 12 May
2010. Web. 25 May 2010.
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Organizing Your Note Cards
The outline serves as a roadmap. It “outlines” the route you will take when
organizing and drafting your paper. Because you cannot know just where your
writing might take you, it is important to understand that the final draft of your
paper will differ significantly from the original outline. Just as a traveler will
detour for a roadside attraction and thus a more interesting trip, the thoughtful
writer will consider new angles, discard previous theories, and expand upon
original ideas. Indeed, if the final draft holds true to the outline, the writer has a
problem: she has failed to consider her content critically during the writing
process.
The first step in preparing an outline is to organize your note cards. An easy way
to do this is to separate them into piles according to the slugs, or headings, that
you made up. Using the examples above for the paper on King Richard III, you
would have one group of cards under the slug/heading Childhood. The notes on
the cards in this grouping would cover the king’s life as a child.
The other slugs in this example are a bit more defined. For example, you want to
cover William Shakespeare’s portrayal of Richard III—but the slug,
Shakespeare’s Play, is much too broad. Your note cards become hard to manage
because there is so much material, so you need to sharpen the focus. You might
want to discuss how Shakespeare’s physical description of Richard shaped his
characterization of the king. You might want to dive into Richard’s thinking as
presented in the play and discuss his manipulative personality. The slug in the
example above concerns his marriage. Each of the slugs crafted for the various
aspects of the play would begin with Shakespeare’s Play, and the sub-heading
would have a much narrower focus (Relationship w/wife Anne). Organizing the
cards accordingly makes them easier to manage and makes your paper more
coherent.
Once you have divided your cards according to slugs, you will take one pile at a
time and organize its cards in the order you wish to present the information. Once
the cards under each slug are in order, you can organize the slugs by deciding to
write about this one first, that one second, and so on.
Your cards are now in order. In a sense, you just planned your outline. The slugs
from your note cards can often be incorporated as suitable headings in your
outline. Just remember that other angles will occur to you as you draft your
paper, so you will find yourself changing the organization of your material. And
that’s a good thing. Having a flexible mind will make you a reflective and
responsive writer.
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Formatting the Research Documents
MLA is very specific when it comes to formatting the outline and the research
paper, which includes the works cited page. Each is detailed and requires your
close attention. Make every effort to follow the steps on your own, but if you
need help, please do not hesitate to ask your teacher. You will find examples
illustrating proper formatting on B.8, and C.39-41.
The Outline (see example C.39)
Complete the steps below to format your outline.
1. Set your document to have
• one-inch margins (top, bottom, left, and right),
• double-line spacing, and
• Times New Roman size 12 font.
2. Insert a header numbering all pages consecutively in the upper right-hand
corner, one-half inch from the top and flush with the right margin. To do
this
• select ‘Header and Footer’ from the VIEW menu, click the right
alignment button, and type your last name.
• select ‘Page Numbers’ from the INSERT menu and click ‘Format’ and
use lowercase Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv) to number the pages; do
not use the abbreviation p. before a page number or add a period,
hyphen, or any other punctuation. Click “OK.” Finally,
• click the header’s ‘Close’ tab to return to the body of the paper.
3. Create a left-aligned four-line heading, beginning on the first line of your
document and consisting of these elements:
Your First and Last Names
Your Teacher’s Name or Teachers’ Names
Your Class/Period Number
The Due Date (Day Month Year)
Strike one return.
NOTE: The heading is formal, which means the name of the class is
spelled out and capitalized, as is the month. The class period is
represented simply by its number. It is not preceded by “period,” “per.,”
or “p.” (English I/4).
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4. Center the alignment and type your title in title case. Do not underline,
italicize, make bold, increase font size, use quotation marks, or otherwise
set off the title. Strike one return and return to left alignment.
5. Type the heading Thesis Statement in bold; add a colon, turn off bold,
insert one space, and type your thesis statement (see B.3 for help with
thesis statements).
6. Strike one return and begin the outline at the left margin.
• Use Roman numerals (I, II, III) to mark all major headings. Insert a
period after the numeral, hit the tab key once, and type the heading.
Strike one return.
• Tab once from the left margin. Use capital letters for all subheadings;
insert a period after the capital letter, hit the tab key once again, and
type the subheading. Strike one return.
• Tab twice from the left margin. Use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3) for all
details; insert a period after the numeral, hit the tab key once again,
and type the detail. Strike one return.
• Tab three times from the left margin. Use lowercase letters for all
subdetails; insert a period after the letter, hit the tab key once again,
and type the subdetail.
NOTE: The tabs allow the headings to cascade uniformly and so enhance
readability.
7. Keep in mind the three points below as you type your outline.
• With the exception of proper nouns and adjectives (which are always
capitalized), you will capitalize only the first letter of the first word of
each heading.
• Headings should consist of words and phrases only; if a heading
continues onto the next line, it is too long.
• The segments of the outline must be proportional. That is, if you have
an ‘A’ subheading, you must have a ‘B’ subheading. If you do not
have enough information to put under a second, or ‘B,’ subheading,
you do not need the ‘A’ subheading; the Roman numeral is enough to
cover what you have.
Likewise, if you have a ‘1’ detail heading, you must have a ‘2’ detail
heading. If you do not have enough information for a second, or ‘2,’
detail heading, you do not need the ‘1’ detail heading; the capital letter
subheading is enough to cover what you have. And so on . . .
Whew! Glad that’s over! Let’s format the research paper; it’s much less
complicated.
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The Research Paper (see illustration, B.8; example, C.40)
Open a new document and complete steps 1, 2, and 4 listed above. But observe
the two differences below.
• Do not change the formatting of the page number in step 2. The default is
set to Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3); simply click ‘OK’ from the Page
Numbers window.
• You can most likely skip step 3. When the formal outline is submitted
with the research paper, the heading should appear on the first page of the
outline, not the first page of the actual paper—unless your teacher
specifies otherwise (see examples, C.39-40). The heading replaces a title
page, which MLA does not recommend.
After completing step 4, finish formatting the body of the research paper with the
three steps below.
5. Hit the tab button to indent the first line of your introduction (and every
subsequent paragraph) one-half inch from the left margin. Begin drafting
your paper. Continue double-spacing throughout the paper, including all
quotations and the sources listed on the works cited page.
6. Integrate direct quotations smoothly into your text—but if a direct
quotation runs onto a fifth line, you must set it off as a block quote (for
directions and example, see Block Quotations, A.7, A.8).
7. Strike a return after the last sentence in your conclusion and insert a page
break to set up the works cited page.
The Works Cited Page (see illustration, B.8; example, C.41)
The list of works cited contains only the works that have been cited in the text
of the paper. Complete the formatting with the final steps below.
1. Center the alignment and type the heading Works Cited. Strike one return
and left align your text.
2. Begin each entry flush with the left margin, but when the entry runs more
than a single line, indent any subsequent lines one-half inch by setting a
hanging indent. You can do this in the Writing Center by clicking on the
‘Hanging Indent’ button in the ribbon toolbar. Otherwise, move the
bottom of the left margin marker to the half-inch mark of the ruler.
3. Do not insert extra returns between entries.
4. List your sources alphabetically, by the last name of the author—or, if an
author is not listed, by the first word of the title (disregard any initial A,
An, or The).
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Fundamentally Speaking . . .
Now that formatting the research paper is out of the way, let’s look specifically at
the documentation incorporated into its pages to understand the ‘why’ and the
‘how.’
The Why Each in-text citation
• credits the sources listed on your works cited page for the information you
present in your work;
• provides a quick reference which makes it easy for the reader to connect
the idea, the statistic, or the quote to the source; and
• is evidence of the effort you put into your paper, to the curiosity driving
your research, and to the respect you show your topic.
Basic In-Text Citation
The in-text citation (also called parenthetical citation or parenthetical
documentation) located at the end of the following sentence is a simple
representation of MLA style:
Indian narratives of the Custer battle have gained credibility through artifacts
gathered during the 1984-85 excavations of Montana’s battlefield (Hutton 572).
“(Hutton 572)” tells us that the information contained in the sentence was taken
from page 572 of a work written or edited by someone named Hutton. The reader
will find more information regarding this source on the works cited page at the
end of the research paper:
Hutton, Paul A., ed. The Custer Reader. Norman: U of Oklahoma P, 2004. Print.
This particular entry does not cite (or list) an author. Instead, we learn that
• Paul Hutton is the editor of The Custer Reader,
• that the book was published in Norman by the University of Oklahoma
Press in 2004, and
• that the writer used the print version.
The in-text citation contains only enough information to allow the reader to locate
the source in the works-cited list. Keep in mind the following:
• If an author’s name is included in the line(s) requiring documentation,
only the page number should appear in the citation: (21).
Rowell disagreed with the department’s findings (21).
Works cited entry: Rowell, David. “Mayor’s Determination Saves Town.”
Manhattan Monthly 30 June 2013: 21-27. Print.
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•
To include two or more works in a single parenthetical reference, use
semicolons to separate the citations: (Coe; Ry 239).
Half of the teenagers present said they opposed the regulation, but school
administrators instituted it anyway (Coe; Ry 239).
•
Present any part of a title or label provided in a citation just as it is
presented in the list of works cited: (Radio Blues), (Jones, “Flathead
Lake” 101), (Riddle, Introduction ix).
Radio Blues: The Doomed Flight of Mission Mountain Wood Band.
Missoula: Green, 2012. Print.
Jones, Nick. “Flathead Lake’s Sorrowful Summer.” Missoulian 30 June
1990: B1+. Print.
Riddle, Jim. Introduction. Montana’s Magical Mystery Tour. By Aber
Dayton. Helena: Riverbend, 2007. iv-ix. Print.
•
Do not include page numbers for electronic sources in your citation unless
they are fixed, as in PDF files.
Taking a Source from Bib Card to Citation to Works Cited Page
The How As illustrated above, the in-text citation is an abbreviated reference that
begins with the bib card and ends on the works cited page.
As recorded on the bib card, a source is a singular, isolated piece of information.
But when that same information is linked to your text through a citation and
transferred to the works cited page, that source—placed alphabetically—becomes
part of a coherent whole.
Sources are listed alphabetically, letter by letter:
Descartes, René
“Descent into Madness”
De Sica, Vittorio
MacDougal, Steve
McVickers, Colleen
“Money Troubles in Spain”
“Safe at Last”
Saint-Exupéry, Antoine de
St. James, Claire
But there is, of course, a bit more to it.
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Presentation of Authors
The author of a work—when author credit is given—begins the entry. The
formatting of the other elements in the entry—the title, the newspaper/
magazine/web site, the place of publication, publisher, and date of publication—
remain relatively fixed when it comes to formatting entries. But authors come in
a variety of ways and therefore deserve greater attention. The guidelines
pertaining to the presentation of authors apply to all sources: print, non-print, and
web.
But what if no author is listed? Let’s begin with this question, one that many
students ask. If no author is listed, the entry begins with whatever comes next.
The title of a book or the title of an article (print or web), which typically follows
the author, would begin such entries, as in the example below:
“Jocko the Poodle: A Life Well-Loved.” Dog Lovers’ Monthly 22 Feb. 2005: 35-42.
Print.
In-Text Citation: (“Jocko” 35).
The absence of an author makes it clear that no author was credited in the source.
Nevertheless, some students feel compelled to put something in the author’s
place. The incorrect example below is typical of what we sometimes see in a
works cited entry.
No Author. “Jocko the Poodle: A Life Well-Loved.” Dog Lovers’ Monthly 22
Feb. 2005: 35-42. Print.
Consider the in-text citation (or parenthetical documentation) for the first example
above. MLA keeps things to a minimum, so provide only the first word(s) of the
title for entries having no author and the page number where the information was
found, if applicable. Hence, (“Jocko” 35). Because the entries are listed
alphabetically on the works cited page, the reader can easily find the source to
which the citation refers.
What if there is more than one author listed? Refer to the examples on authors
below as you list your sources on the works cited page. Remember, the type of
source—print, non-print, or web—does not matter because the principles behind
the presentation of authors apply to every source.
One Author (last name, first name)
Cook, Margaret G. The New. . . .
In-Text Citation: (Cook 232).
Two Authors
Houg, Ian M., and Ira Stim. Colonial. . . .
In-Text Citation: (Houg and Stim 75).
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Three Authors (note the comma before the and)
Allport, Guy F., Phillip E. Vernon, and Gardner Lynd. Study. . . .
In-Text Citation: (Allport, Vernon, and Lynd 39).
More than Three Authors (et al is Latin for “and others”)
Campbell, Angus, et al. The Wary. . . .
In-Text Citation: (Campbell et al. 88).
Two or More Works by the Same Author (entries are alphabetized by title; the
three hyphens represent exactly the name in the preceding entry.)
Ney, Della G. Middle Ages. . . .
In-Text Citation: (Ney, Middle Ages 123).
---. “My Lady. . . .
In-Text Citation: (Ney, “My Lady” 43).
Two or more entries by coauthors beginning with the same name (alphabetize
by the last names of the second authors listed; hyphens are not used in the second
entry because the coauthorship is not identical to the previous entry)
Ney, Della, and Miriam Bourke. “Revisiting. . . .
In-Text Citation: (Ney and Bourke, “Revisiting”).
Ney, Della, and Earl Swinth. Family. . . .
In-Text Citation: (Ney and Swinth, Family 343).
Separate Entries of Authors with the Same Last Name (alphabetized by first
names)
Fox, Alice. Nebraska. . .
In-Text Citation: (A. Fox 623).
Fox, Tony. Touring. . . .
In-Text Citation: (T. Fox 422).
Corporate Author (usually presented as a source without an author, but listing
the corporate author is also correct.)
Nutrition Research Council. Beyond. . . .
In-Text Citation: (Nutrition 112).
No Author
The Gamble. . . .
In-Text Citation: (Gamble 62).
Editor, No Author (with multiple editors, names are presented in same manner
as authors; eds. identifies Seltzer and Thomas as editors)
Seltzer, Lawrence H., and Frances Thomas, eds. Economic. . . .
In-Text Citation: (Seltzer and Thomas 111).
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Titles, Degrees, and Affiliations (give the author’s name as it appears on the title
page, but omit any titles, affiliations, and degrees that precede or follow names)
Title Page of Source
Jean H. Boyd, PhD
Sir James Worth
Works Cited
Boyd, Jean H.
Worth, James
Suffixes Appended to Names: Jr. or Sr.; I, III, IV
In text of paper: MLA no longer requires commas when Jr. or Sr. appears after
the name in the text of your paper, though their use is still acceptable both before
and after Jr./Sr.
David Lee Brown, Jr., or David Lee Brown Jr.
Do not insert commas before suffixes like III, IV in the text of your paper.
John D. Rockefeller IV
On works cited page: A comma precedes these suffixes in a works-cited entry.
Brown, David Lee, Jr.
Rockefeller, John D., IV.
*
*
*
COMPOSING WORKS-CITED ENTRIES
Works-cited entries can be confusing because they are so varied, so it is important
to pay attention to the details—and there are lots of them. But before getting to
the specifics as provided in the sample entries, we should discuss a few
generalities.
The Medium Used to Access the Source A single source may be available in a
variety of formats, and the precise content of one might not be exactly the same as
another. For example:
Books ................A book might be found in print form, on a Kindle, as an
audio download, or on the Internet. The only fixed edition is
the printed page; the other versions are more fluid. That is to
say, they lack fixed page numbers. What was documented in
your paper will be harder to pin down if the reader does not
know what version was used.
Periodicals ........‘Periodicals’ is a broad term covering content that is
published periodically, such as newspapers, magazine, and
journals. They can be found in print or online, and many can
be found in both. An article appearing in an early edition of
a newspaper might differ from one appearing in later edition,
an online article might be an abbreviated version of one
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previously published in print, and photographs accompanying
a printed article might be missing in the online edition of the
magazine.
Web Pages ........An article on the Internet might be from a periodical, a blog,
or a corporate or government web site. It might be here
today and gone tomorrow. The chunk you used for your
research might be revised or deleted by the time your teacher
checks it.
PDFs .................A PDF (Portable Document Format) can be a copy of an
article, web page, lesson, book—even a handbook, like this
one. It is an exact copy of the original in a format that cannot
be revised or edited; because it cannot be altered, the reader
can be assured that the wording of the PDF is that of the
original copy.
Music ................You could have accessed the lyrics of the song you used in
your paper from a record album (LP), a CD, or downloaded
from iTunes as an MP3—or written on a page from a web
site.
Movies ..............Movies can be viewed in theaters, on television, via Netflix,
or on DVD. A movie originally filmed with actors might
also be available in animation.
Art.....................You can view art in a museum, online, in a book or
magazine. The piece might be an oil on canvas painting, a
bronze sculpture, a wood carving, or glass vase.
Interviews.........Interviews are conducted on television, radio, in person, over
the phone, and through email. They can be accessed through
a web site or downloaded from the Internet onto an iPod.
Events ...............Events like lectures, readings, speeches, seminars and
addresses are mediums.
You get the idea. Information is everywhere and available in a variety of formats
and editions—and that is why it is important to be precise about the medium in
which it was accessed. MLA calls this the medium of publication. You will see
the medium of publication in each sample works-cited entry provided in this
handbook. Use Print for printed sources and Web for Internet sources. For
sources like letters, use TS for typescript (typed works) and MS for manuscript
(handwritten works). Other mediums of publication include radio, DVDs,
lectures, PDF files, LPs, etc., as indicated in the listing above.
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Books
At their most basic, works-cited entries for BOOKS contain the following
information in the order listed, when the information is available:
Author’s last name, first name. Title of the Work. Place of publication: publisher,
year of publication. Medium of publication.
1. List the author(s) as shown on C.12-14. If an author is not listed, start
with the title.
2. List the full title of the work, as it appears on the title page, set in italics
and followed by a period.
If the work has a subtitle, place a colon after the main title (unless the
main title ends in some other punctuation mark) and capitalize the first
letter of the subtitle; insert a period after the entire title.
Use title case when capitalizing the title, regardless of how it is capitalized
on the title page (see also Titles of Works, A.5-6).
3. Take the place of publication and publisher from the title page.
Information not located on the title page can usually be found on the
copyright page (the reverse side of the title page).
If multiple cities are listed, use only the first (see also A Book with
Multiple Publishers, C.16, C.18). It is not necessary to include the
names of states, provinces, or countries after the city, but you may include
an abbreviation if the city is likely to be unfamiliar to the reader (see
MLA 7.3).
Shorten the name of the publisher (see C.37-38). Use the most recent
copyright year listed. Insert a colon between the place of publication and
the publisher, a comma between the publisher and the date, and a period
after the date.
But nothing is ever that neat . . .
Sometimes crafting a works-cited entry is like playing whack-a-mole. Just when
you think you understand where to find all the pieces and are confident about
where to place them, you run across a source that just won’t cooperate. Perhaps it
is missing the publisher or the date of publication or the page numbers. Maybe it
does not list an editor or sufficient information about the original publication.
The problem lies in the sheer variety of sources; in spite of MLA’s best efforts to
bring order to chaos, it is not the boss of the publishers of these sources. It cannot
impose a set style on these sources. And it is impossible for MLA to cover every
variable.
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
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That leaves it to you to do the best you can. If a source does not provide the
information you need, provide what is available. Follow the progression of detail
in the excerpts below to indicate any missing publication information.
•
•
•
•
N.p. .......... no place of publication, book .... N.p.: Knopf, 2009
n.p. ........... no publisher, book ..................... New York: n.p., 2009
n.d. ........... no date of publication, book ...... New York: Knopf, n.d.
N. pag. ....... no pagination, anthology ........... New York: Basic, 2009. N. pag.
In the end, no matter how closely you try to follow the guidelines provided in this
handbook, understand that what we publish is constrained by time and money.
Like MLA, we cannot cover every variable, so at times you will have to make
your best effort (i.e., educated guess) when composing works-cited entries.
Fortunately, MLA’s style is flexible because of the many variables, and its editors
encourage students to make an educated guess when necessary. It is absolutely
okay to pluck this element or that from one entry to incorporate into another when
making that educated guess.
*
*
*
Sample Entries: Print and Nonprint Sources
Basic works-cited entries for BOOKS provide the details below:
Author’s last name, first name. Title of the Work. Place of publication: publisher,
year of publication. Medium of publication.
One Author
Cook, Margaret G. The New Library Key. New York: Wilson, 1963. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Cook 232).
Two Authors
Houg, Ian M., and Ira Stim. Colonial Poetry. Natick: Pilgrim, 1959. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Houg and Stim 75).
Three Authors
Allport, Guy, Phillip E. Vernon, and Gardner Lynd. Study of Values. New York:
Houghton, 1951. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Allport, Vernon, and Lynd 39).
More than Three Authors
Campbell, Angus, et al. The Wary Voter. New York: Wiley, 1964. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Campbell et al. 88).
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Two or More Works by the Same Author
Ney, Della G. Middle Ages Revisited. New York: Wilson, 1993. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Ney, Middle Ages 123).
---. My Lady: Katherine Swynford. London: Bloomsbury 2007: 123-50. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Ney, My Lady 143).
Editor, No Author
Seltzer, Lawrence H., and Frances Thomas, eds. Economic Recovery Issues. Detroit:
Wayne State UP, 2007. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Seltzer and Thomas 111).
Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterword
Elliott, Emory. Afterword. The Jungle. By Upton Sinclair. New York: Bantam,
1985. vii-xvii. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Elliot viii).
Illustrated Books and Graphic Narratives
When referring to the book in general, begin the entry with the author.
Baum, L. Frank. The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Introd. Regina Barrec. Illus. W. W.
Denslow. New York: Signet-Penguin, 2006. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Baum 57).
When the illustrator and his work are the focus, begin there.
Denslow, W. W., illus. The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. By L. Frank Baum. Introd.
Regina Barreca. New York: Signet-Penguin, 2006. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Denslow 35).
A Translation
Beowulf. Trans. E. Talbot Donaldson. Ed. Nicholas Howe. New York: Norton,
2001. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Beowulf 51).
A Book with Multiple Publishers
When the title page of a book lists two or more publishers (co-publishers), as
opposed to two or more offices of the same publisher, record them in the order
they appear and separate them with a semi-colon.
Tomlinson, Janis A., ed. Goya: Images of Women. Washington: Natl. Gallery of
Art; New Haven: Yale UP, 2002. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Tomlinson 147).
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52
Citing Common Literature (see also MLA 6.4.8)
Commonly-studied prose, such as novels, plays, and speeches, often appears in a
variety of editions, so it is helpful to be specific about the lines referenced. When
composing the parenthetical documentation,
• give the author and/or page number first and insert a semi-colon, then add
any other information that helps locate the material, such as chapter,
section, or line number: (130; ch. 9, sec. 2).
• use Arabic numerals unless your instructor directs you to use Roman
numerals. (Always use lowercase Roman numerals when citing pages
from sections like the preface or a forward.)
Shue, Larry. The Foreigner. New York: Dramatists, 1985. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Shue 85; 2.2.17-22).
“A Midsummer Night’s Dream.” The Complete Works of William Shakespeare.
New York: Gramercy, 1975. 153-73. Print.
In-Text Citation: (“Midsummer” V.ii).
Religious Works
• Italicize the titles of specific editions (The Holy Bible).
• Do not use italics or quotation marks to specify general terms like Bible,
Talmud or Koran or the names of the books within (Genesis, Abhoth, AlAnbiya; see Exceptions: Special Titles, A.6; MLA 3.6.5).
• Do not use page numbers in references to the work in your text, but rather
the name of the edition, the book, and its chapter and verse.
• Subsequent references from the same edition do not require the name of
the edition; you need cite only the book, chapter, and verse (see MLA
6.4.8; see 7.7.1 for abbreviations relating to the Bible).
In your list of works cited, compose an entry that includes the version of the
edition you used when citing scripture (see MLA online, 5.5.10).
The Bible
The Holy Bible. Wheaton: Crossway-Good News, 2003. Print. Eng. Standard Vers.
1st In-Text Citation: (Holy Bible, Ezek. 1.5-10).
2nd In-Text Citation: (Rev. 4.6-8).
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Basic works-cited entries for ANTHOLOGIES and REFERENCE
BOOKS provide the details below:
Author’s last name, first name. “Title of Story or Article.” Name of translator, if
there is one. Title of the Work. Name of editor(s). Place of publication:
publisher, year of publication. Inclusive page numbers, if pieces are not listed
alphabetically. Medium of publication.
When citing an article, an essay, a short story, a poem, or some other work that
appears within a periodical or collection,
• give the inclusive page numbers of the piece you are citing; this follows
the publication date and a period.
• give only the first page number followed by a plus sign (6+) if an article is
not printed on consecutive pages.
• If a work in a collection is arranged alphabetically, you may omit page
numbers.
NOTE: If the editor or compiler is also the author of the work, provide only the
last name after Ed. and/or Comp.
A Work in an Anthology
Allende, Isabel. “Toad’s Mouth.” Trans. Margaret Sayers Peden. A Hammock
beneath the Mangoes: Stories from Latin America. Ed. Thomas Colchie. New
York: Plume, 1992. 83-88. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Allende 86).
Article in a Reference Book (State the volume number of a multivolume work.)
Brakeley, Theresa C. “Mourning Songs.” Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary
of Folklore, Mythology, and Legend. Vol. 2. Ed. Maria Leach and Jerome Fried.
New York: Crowell, 1950. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Brakely 290).
Dictionary Entry or Encyclopedia Article
“Collegial.” Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. 2010 ed. Print.
In-Text Citation: (“Collegial” 77).
“Sitting Bull.” The Encyclopedia Americana. 18th. ed. 2003. Print.
In-Text Citation: (“Sitting Bull” 756).
To cite a specific entry, add Entry and its number (“Rube.” Entry 2). Follow the
same principal to cite a specific definition (“That.” Def. 4b).
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To cite a line previously quoted elsewhere, begin the parenthetical citation with
qtd. in: Samuel Johnson admitted that Edmund Burke was an “extraordinary man”
(qtd. in Boswell 2: 450).
Boswell, James. The Life of Johnson. Oxford: Clarendon, 1950. Print.
In-Text Citation: (qtd. in Boswell 450).
To cross reference two or more works from the same volume, compose an
entry for the single volume (Bender and Leone in the example below), and
reference each work to that entry (see also MLA online, 5.3.6). This prevents
needless repetition. The medium of publication is required only in the listing for
the single volume.
Bender, David L., and Bruno Leone, eds. Opposing Viewpoints: War and Human
Nature. St. Paul: Greenhaven, 1983. Print.
Freud, Sigmund. “Humans Are Born Violent.” Bender and Leone 36-40.
In-Text Citation: (Freud 39).
Introduction. Bender and Leone 13-14.
In-Text Citation: (Introduction 13).
Lee, Richard E. “Aggression Is Not an Instinct.” Bender and Leone 22-25.
In-Text Citation: (Lee 23).
*
*
*
Basic works-cited entries for PERIODICALS provide the details
below:
Author’s last name, first name (if given). “Title of Article.” Title of Periodical date
published: page number(s). Medium of publication.
When citing an article that appears within a periodical, give the inclusive page
numbers of the piece you are citing; this follows the publication date and a colon.
If an article is not printed on consecutive pages, give only the first page number
followed by a plus sign (6+).
Present the dates in works-cited entries in the day-month-year format. Except for
May, June, and July, abbreviate months in works-cited entries as follows:
Jan.
July
Feb.
Aug.
Mar.
Sept.
Apr.
Oct.
May
Nov.
June
Dec.
Do not abbreviate seasons: Spring, Summer, Winter, Fall.
Follow the example below if a periodical does not provide the page number.
•
n. pag. ....... no pagination, periodical .................. Time 10 May 2010: n. pag.
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Magazine or Newspaper Article
Smith, Joan. “Owl Rhythms.” Moscow Daily 13 Oct. 2008: A8+. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Smith A8).
Letter to the Editor
Meyer, Virginia. Letter. Deer Lodge News 18 July 2010: A6. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Meyer A6).
Scholarly Journal
Funk, Linda. “Art Schmart.” Critical Inquiry 32.2 (2006): 288-340. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Funk 298).
Compare the above journal article with the other articles. In journal entries, a
journal’s volume and issue numbers (32.2, above) come after the journal’s name.
A colon follows the date of publication (enclosed in parentheses) and precedes the
range of pages.
Advertisement
Head and Shoulders. Advertisement. Newsweek 17 Mar. 2008: n. pag. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Head).
*
*
*
Miscellaneous Sources, Print and Nonprint
Government Publications (see also MLA online, 5.5.20)
These publications vary widely. In general, when an author is not credited, cite as
the author the government and agency issuing the document. Use familiar
abbreviations when possible, like Dept. or Cong.
United States. Dept. of Labor. Child Care: A Workforce Issue. Washington: GPO,
2007. Print.
In-Text Citation: (United States 76).
Pamphlet (Treat a pamphlet as you would a book.)
Best Museums: New York City. New York: Trip Builder, 2009. Print.
In-Text Citation: (Best Museums).
Letter
List the medium in which an unpublished letter was received. Use TS for
typescript (typed material) or MS for manuscript (handwritten material).
Hatch, James C. Letter to the author. 5 Apr. 2009. TS.
In-Text Citation: (Hatch 4).
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Treat a published letter as a work in a collection.
Saslow, Eli. “I Was Bullied in High School and Seriously Contemplated Suicide.”
From Jon Santos. Ten Letters: The Stories Americans Tell Their Presidents.
New York: Doubleday, 2011. 229-230. Print.
A PDF File, printed (see also MLA online, 5.7.18)
When the PDF file is provided in printed form, list PDF file as the medium.
“The Research Paper.” The Writer’s Handbook. Bozeman: Bozeman High School
Writing Center, 2010. PDF file.
In-Text Citation: (“Research Paper” C.22).
(If you found the PDF file on the web, list Web as the medium; there is no need to
identify it as a PDF file. If the online PDF includes page numbers, include those
in your citation.
Lecture, Seminar, Speech, Address, or Reading
Name of Speaker. “Title of Presentation.” The Meeting or Session, if applicable.
Sponsoring Organization, if applicable. Address of Location, City. Date.
Medium.
Alter, Robert, and Mary Robinson. “The Psalms: A Reading and Conversation.”
92nd Street Y, New York. 17 Dec. 2007. Reading.
In-Text Citation: (Alter and Robinson).
Matuozzi, Robert. “Flexibility Is Key.” Citation Trauma. MLA Annual Convention.
Hyatt Regency, Chicago. 29 Dec. 2007. Address.
In-Text Citation: (Matuozzi).
Interview (see also MLA 5.8.7; online, 5.7.7)
Works-cited entries for interviews conducted personally are very simple:
Drake, Malia. Personal interview. 3 Oct. 2010.
In-Text Citation: (Drake).
Woh, Rose. Telephone interview. 28 Jan. 2008.
In-Text Citation: (Woh).
Interviews conducted by another, in a medium like radio, television, or print,
require a bit more.
Name of Interviewee. Interview by Name of Interviewer. Program. Station. Call
Letters, City. Date. Medium.
Breslin, Jimmy. Interview by Neal Conan. Talk of the Nation. Natl. Public Radio.
WBUR, Boston. 26 Mar. 2006. Radio.
In-Text Citation: (Breslin).
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A Painting, Sculpture or Photograph
Name of Artist. Title of Piece. Date Created. Medium of Art. Location, City.
Perutz, Dolly. Bird Flying. 1973. Bronze. Central Park, New York.
In-Text Citation: (Perutz).
Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn. Aristotle with a Bust of Homer. 1653. Oil on
canvas. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
In-Text Citation: (Rembrandt).
Television or Radio Program
“Name of Segment.” Title of Series, if applicable. Narrator. Director, if applicable.
Name of Station, or Call Letters, location. Date originally aired. Medium.
“Frederick Douglas.” Civil War Journal. Narr. Danny Glover. Dir. Craig Haffner.
Arts and Entertainment Network. 6 Apr. 1993. Television.
In-Text Citation: (“Frederick”).
“Death and Society.” Narr. Joanne Silberner. Weekend Edition Sunday. Natl. Public
Radio. KBMC, Bozeman, 25 Jan. 1998. Radio.
In-Text Citation: (“Death”).
The narrator is positioned differently in the two examples above because
information about a specific episode comes after the episode’s title, while
information about an entire series comes after the title of the series. Glover
narrated the entire Civil War Journal series in the first example; Silberner
narrated that particular episode of Weekend Edition Sunday in the second
example, “Death.”
Sound Recording: Music
Name of Artist. “Title of Song.” Rec. Date. Name of Album. Producer, date
produced. Medium of Publication.
Holiday, Billie. “God Bless the Child.” Rec. 9 May 1941. The Essence of Billie
Holiday. Columbia, 1991. LP.
In-Text Citation: (Holiday).
Sound Recording: Audio Book
Hern, Ed, narr. John Adams. By David McCullough. Simon, 2001. Audiocassette.
In-Text Citation: (Hern).
Film on DVD
Treat a film (as seen in a theater or on television), videocassette, laser disc, film
strip, or slide show as you would a DVD.
The Wizard of Oz. Dir. Victor Fleming. 1939. Warner Bros., 1999. DVD.
In-Text Citation: (Wizard).
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*
*
*
INTERNET RESOURCES (see also MLA online, 5.6)
As discussed earlier in this handbook (C.14), the pages within a web site are not
as fixed or stable as print material and often require some interpretation. So let’s
start with the basics: below is a typical entry for a web page.
Author last name, first name. “Title of Article/Page.” Site. Publisher or sponsor of
Web site, date posted/revised/copyrighted. Medium of publication (Web). Date
accessed.
The key word here is ‘typical.’ Like print sources, there is great variety in the
formatting of web pages. And, like print sources, you will at times have to use
your best judgment when crafting works-cited entries and in-text citations. You
will have questions. For instance, what constitutes a web site? Is it the entire
body of pages found under the domain name—or is a site the chapter or section
within that domain? MLA believes both interpretations have merit and leaves it
up to the writer and teacher (see also MLA online, 5.6.1).
What if I cannot find all the elements listed in samples within this handbook?
Because web publications vary in the information they provide, you can cite only
what is available. However, the four elements listed below are always available.
If you can find nothing else you can still provide the
• “Title of the Web Page,”
• Site,
• medium of publication (hint: it’s always Web), and
• date accessed.
What about page numbers?
Look again at the sample entry beginning this section. Notice the lack of page
numbers? Remember, unless it is a PDF, web pages are not fixed. So even if you
notice that pages are numbered 1 of 3, 2 of 3, 3 of 3, you must not include a page
number either in your in-text citation or the works-cited entry. Such page
numbers are meaningless. We will revisit this issue when we cover online
periodicals.
To URL or not to URL; that is the question . . . And the answer is a simple
“no.” MLA no longer recommends including the site’s web address, or URL
(Uniform Resource Locator), so you will not see web addresses in the examples
provided on these pages. Web sites tend to be fluid and their addresses can
change, making their URLs outdated. They are outdated in another way, as well.
It was not that long ago that people conducted web searches by typing the URL in
the address bar, but today those looking for a particular web page usually conduct
their search using keywords, titles, and the names of authors. You probably
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
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conduct your own searches that way. Also, URLs can be long and cumbersome,
making typographical errors more likely. That is why the sample generic workscited entry at the beginning of this section does not include a URL. However, it
might be a good idea to keep a list of the URLs of the sites you find helpful if you
work at a shared computer where you cannot maintain bookmarks. One way is to
add the URL to the entry in the draft works cited page, making sure to delete the
address before submitting the paper.
But if your teacher requires you to include a web address, or if the site cannot
be located without one, enclose the URL in angle brackets and place it after the
access date, a period, and one space or two. Insert a period after the closing
bracket. (You must still include Web before the access date.)
. . . Web. Date accessed. <URL>.
If the URL goes onto the next line, break it only after the double slashes or a
single slash; strike a “soft return” (SHIFT + RETURN) to maintain the hanging
indent.
It is critical that you understand what you are getting when you select a web site
as a source for your paper. You have to know where to look in the site to find the
elements you need to piece together the works-cited entry: where would you find
the publisher of the page? the date it was posted or copyrighted? what do you do
if you cannot find those elements?
But much more importantly, you must understand what you are getting when you
select a web site because it might turn out to be a terrible source—or at minimum
an unreliable one, like Wikipedia. Maybe the author is presenting his own biases
instead of factual research. Perhaps the information is dated or is itself based on a
faulty premise. It is possible the company sponsoring the page is misrepresenting
the facts while trying to promote its product. If you cannot identify the source of
the information on a web site or ascertain the credibility of its authorship, do not
use the information in an academic research paper as if it were a credible source.
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Sample Entries: Internet Sources
Like every other entry on a works cited page, dates are entered in the day-monthyear format. Except for May, June, and July, abbreviate months in works-cited
entries as follows:
Jan.
July
Feb.
Aug.
Mar.
Sept.
Apr.
Oct.
May
Nov.
June
Dec.
Do not abbreviate seasons: Spring, Summer, Winter, Fall.
A Single Document within a Larger Web Site
This is the most common type of web page.
Author last name, first name. “Title of Article/Page.” Site. Publisher or sponsor of
Web site, date posted/revised/copyrighted. Medium of publication (Web). Date
accessed.
Haynes, Jeanne. “Nursing 101.” Johns Hopkins Medicine. Johns Hopkins U, 4 Dec.
2013. Web. 29 Jan. 2013.
In-Text Citation: (Haynes).
If you’ll recall, there was an earlier discussion on C.21, C.27 regarding
publication information, like dates or page numbers or publishers, that might be
missing from a source. Let’s see what this might look like, using the Haynes
example above.
A source missing an author:
“Nursing 101.” Johns Hopkins Medicine. Johns Hopkins U, 4 Dec. 2013. Web. 29
Jan. 2013.
In-Text Citation: (“Nursing 101”).
A source missing a publisher or sponsor:
Haynes, Jeanne. “Nursing 101.” Johns Hopkins Medicine. N.p., 4 Dec. 2013. Web.
29 Jan. 2013.
A source missing a date:
Haynes, Jeanne. “Nursing 101.” Johns Hopkins Medicine. Johns Hopkins U, n.d.
Web. 29 Jan. 2013.
Notice that the only four elements that consistently remain in each example are
the “Title of the Web Page,” the Site, Medium (Web), and date accessed.
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An Online Government Document
These vary with agency and type of document; cite what you can. Begin the entry
with the name of the author, if one is credited. Otherwise, credit authorship to the
government and agency responsible.
Name of government. Name of agency. Name of sub-agency, if there is one. Title
of Article/Site. Date revised/posted/copyrighted. Web. Date accessed.
United States. Dept. of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Projections:
Education Pays. 27 May 2010. Web. 2 June 2010.
In-Text Citation: (United States).
Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks. Recreational Ethics. N.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2012.
In-Text Citation: (Montana).
With the Congressional Record (abbreviate as Cong. Rec.), provide only the date,
page numbers, and the medium of publication used.
Cong. Rec. 26 Feb. 1958: 2761-92. Web.
In-Text Citation: (Cong. Rec.).
Online Encyclopedias, like World Book Web
Author’s name, if provided. “Title of Article.” Original publication information, if
applicable. Name of Encyclopedia. Publisher, copyright. Web. Date accessed.
Griffiths, Ralph A. “Richard III.” World Book Student. World Book, 2012. Web. 3
June 2012.
In-Text Citation: (Griffiths).
An Online Book
Online books are typically scanned for viewing on the Web and so may lack
information available in the print version; present what you can.
Author’s/Editor’s name, if provided. Title of Book. Original publication information
(City, publisher—if known; date published—if known.), Site. Medium (Web).
Date accessed.
Child, L. Maria, ed. The Freedmen’s Book. Boston, 1866. Google Book Search.
Web. 15 May 2008.
In-Text Citation: (Child).
An e-Book (see also MLA 5.7.18, a digital file from a Web site)
Sharlet, Jeff. The Family. Pymble: Harper, 2008. Kindle file.
In-Text Citation: (Sharlet, ch. 5).
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NOTE: E-readers do not use conventional page numbering, but refer the reader to
locations instead. These location numbers will vary with the user, so cite the
chapter or other location identifier that is likewise fixed. Also, insert a comma in
the citation after the author’s name when the location reference that follows is
either a word or abbreviated word. Note the Sharlet example on the previous
page.
Online Periodicals (This gets confusing, so please bear with us.)
We’ve learned that the print version of any periodical (which publishes daily,
weekly, monthly, quarterly, etc.) numbers its pages. These numbers are fixed and
therefore an element in the works-cited entry.
Troy, Oliver. “Officials Urge Compliance, Caution with Fireworks.” Bozeman
Daily Chronicle 1 July 2013: A3. Print.
Online newspapers and magazines post digitized versions of each issue; these
have the same appearance as the print version. In the Chronicle’s case, this is the
e-Chronicle. Because it is an exact reproduction, the page numbers are fixed and
therefore included in these entries, as well. The digitized entry for the works cited
page is very similar to the print entry. The only difference is the addition of Web
and the date of access at the end.
Troy, Oliver. “Officials Urge Compliance, Caution with Fireworks.” Bozeman
Daily Chronicle 1 July 2013: A3. Web. 1 July 2013.
Sites Sponsored by Newspapers and Magazines Do not confuse a periodical
(which publishes daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, etc.) with sites sponsored by
newspapers or magazines, which do not post the exact same content. For
example, both print and electronic versions of the Bozeman Daily Chronicle for
July 1, 2013, print that day’s news. The next day, each will print only the news
stories for July 2, reflecting that day’s news.
However, the web pages of the Chronicle’s web site look nothing like the print or
online editions. Remember, these are web pages, not a newspaper. The content a
visitor finds on these pages on any particular day will differ considerably from
what is actually printed that same day. In fact, on the web pages the reader will
find articles posted minutes ago or dating back several days or even weeks.
This distinction is noted on the works-cited entry:
• the content is not fixed, so there is no page number;
• the content is fluid, so the entry requires the listing of the sponsor or
publisher to anchor it a bit;
• the date posted follows the publisher rather than the site; and of course
• the medium, Web, and the date of access complete the entry.
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Note the differences between the three:
Print Version
Troy, Oliver. “Officials Urge Compliance, Caution with Fireworks.” Bozeman
Daily Chronicle 1 July 2013: A3. Print.
In-text citation: (Carter A3).
Online Version
Carter, Troy. “Officials Urge Compliance, Caution with Fireworks.” Bozeman Daily
Chronicle 1 July 2013: A3. Web. 1 July 2013.
In-text citation: (Carter A3).
Web Pages Version (with sponsor listed)
Carter, Troy. “Officials Urge Compliance, Caution with Fireworks.” Bozeman Daily
Chronicle. Bozeman Daily Chronicle, 1 July 2013. Web. 1 July 2013.
In-text citation: (Carter).
NOTE: The site and publisher will sometimes share the same name, as with the
Chronicle. But they are very different elements and so are presented differently.
An Online Editorial (from web pages, not previously printed)
“W. R. Grace: Define Bankruptcy.” Editorial. Western News [Libby]. Western
News, 16 May 2008. Web. 20 May 2008.
In-Text Citation: (“W. R. Grace”).
If the name of the town is not already part of the name of the newspaper, and if
you think the newspaper is likely to be unfamiliar to the reader, you may enclose
the town’s name in brackets, as illustrated above.
A Letter to the Editor, Online (digitized version, previously published in print)
Alan, Mitchell. Letter. Missoulian 29 Feb. 2004: A6. Web. 10 Mar. 2007.
In-Text Citation: (Alan).
Other Sources from the Web
A Digital File from a Web Site (PDF, MP3, JPEG, podcast, e-book, etc.; see
also MLA online, 5.7.18)
“The Research Paper.” The Writer’s Handbook. Bozeman High School Writing
Center, 2013. Web. 6 Nov. 2013.
In-Text Citation: (“Research Paper” C.19).
List the medium in which the digital file is found. If you found the PDF file on
the web (as in the example above), list Web as the medium; do not identify it as a
PDF file. If the PDF file was provided to you in printed form (as in the first
example on the following page), add PDF file at the end of the entry. The same is
true for JPEGs, podcasts, etc., when downloaded from the web onto a device.
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
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Remember, if the PDF includes page numbers, cite those you reference, as they
are fixed.
“The Research Paper.” The Writer’s Handbook. Bozeman High School Writing
Center, 2010. PDF file.
In-Text Citation: (“Research Paper” C.19).
Del, Jack. At the State Fair. 1941. Lib. of Cong., Washington. JPEG file.
In-Text Citation: (Del).
Hudson, Jennifer, perf. “And I Am Telling You I’m Not Going.” Dreamgirls: Music
from the Motion Picture. Sony BMG, 2006. MP3 file.
In-Text Citation: (Hudson).
Challender, Kevin. “The Reluctant Leader.” TEDxBozeman. 23 Mar. 2012. Video
file.
In-Text Citation: (Challender).
Interview (see also MLA 5.7.7; online, 5.6.2b)
Antin, David. Interview by Charles Bernstein. Dalkey Archive Press. Dalkey
Archive P, n.d. Web. 21 Aug. 2007.
In-Text Citation: (Antin).
A Television or Radio Program
Glass, Ira. “The Prosecutor.” This American Life. Chicago Public Radio, 30 May
2008. Web. 2 June 2008.
In-Text Citation: (Glass).
“The Undertaking.” Frontline. PBS, 30 Oct. 2007. Web. 5 Nov. 2007.
In-Text Citation: (“Undertaking”).
An Image
Evans, Walker. Penny Picture Display. 1936. MOMA. Web. 9 May 2010.
In-Text Citation: (Evans).
An Image Search
Libby Dam. “Kootenai River Photographs.” Google Image Search. Web. 13 May
2013.
In-Text Citation: (Libby Dam).
A Map
“Pasco, Washington.” Map. Google Maps. Google, 10 Sept. 2002. Web. 16 Nov.
2009.
In-Text Citation: (“Pasco”).
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
65
A Picture, Cartoon, Comic, Chart, Graph, or Table
NOTE: Illustrations such as these have their own formatting style within the
paper.
“Verb Tenses.” Chart. The OWL at Purdue. Purdue U Online Writing Lab, 2009.
Web. 30 Sept. 2009.
In-Text Citation: (“Verb Tenses”).
Ohs, Jack. “Oops.” Cartoon. Time. Time, 8 Apr. 2002. Web. 9 May 2008.
In-Text Citation: (Ohs).
An Advertisement
Lee Mood Ring. Advertisement. Psychic! Fall 1998. Web. 31 Oct. 2009.
In-Text Citation: (Lee).
Blogs (MLA refers to blogs as online postings)
Krafft, Randy. “Bluefin Tuna, Casualties of Greed.” Randy Krafft’s 4Equality Blog.
Wordpress.com, 10 Sept. 2011. Web. 30 Nov. 2011.
In-Text Citation: (Krafft).
E-mail Communication
Dind, Tom. “Re: Utopia.” Message to the author. 13 Sept. 2009. E-mail.
In-Text Citation: (Dind).
Caution: Use self-published communications such as personal blogs and e-mails
and social media postings with care, if at all. They are not academically reliable
because they are not reviewed by any editorial board. If you use emails, blogs, or
postings, put them in the proper context; i.e., show that while the site is not
academic, the information it provides is indicative of a particular perspective.
Know your source: many bloggers consider themselves on par with trained
journalists or actual experts. Most are not.
Social Media
Use social media carefully; do not treat personal postings as if they were
authoritative.
Posts on Twitter
Name (Username). “Entire text of tweet; do not change capitalization.” Date, time.
Tweet.
Fischer, Gregor (schnickelfritz). “Sotheby’s auctions Edvard Munch’s The Scream
for a record $119.9 million.” 2 May 2012, 6:31 p.m. Tweet.
In-Text Citation: (Fischer).
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
66
YouTube Videos
108Morris108. “Syrian Girl - What Syria Should Do.” YouTube. 21 Feb. 2012.
Web. 3 May 2012.
In-Text Citation: (108Morris108).
*
*
*
ONLINE DATABASES The SGHS library provides access to the information
service EBSCO, where you will find databases like SIRS Issues Researcher and
Newspaper Source Plus. It is the database within EBSCO that you will list in
your works-cited entry.
Caution: These databases provide a works-cited entry at the end of each article;
do not trust these entries. They do not adhere strictly to MLA, though they
indicate otherwise. Note the differences in the examples below:
EBSCO:
Steel, Emily. “Using Credit Cards To Target Web Ads.” Wall Street
Journal - Eastern Edition 5 Oct. 2011: A1+. Newspaper Source
Plus. Web. 8 Dec. 2011.
SIRS:
Steel, Emily. “Using Credit Cards To Target Web Ads.” Wall Street
Journal. 05 Oct 2011: A.1. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 08 Dec
2011.
MLA:
Steel, Emily. “Using Credit Cards to Target Web Ads.” Wall Street
Journal 5 Oct. 2011, east. ed.: A1+. Whichever database used.
Web. 8 Dec. 2011.
Still, these so-called MLA works-cited entries can prove useful: they supply
details with which you might otherwise struggle when constructing your entry,
such as the name of the actual database. For example, in EBSCO, the database
used in Points of View is actually Points of View Reference Center (see example
on C.34). Likewise, the first listing within EBSCO is EBSCOhost Research
Databases. This is merely a portal to the actual databases, such as MAS UltraSchool Edition and Academic Search Elite. JSTOR is simpler, serving as both
digitized information service and database.
Construct each entry as you would if you had found it independent of the
database—print, nonprint or web-based. If the page numbers from the original
source are not provided, use “n. pag.” However, if a source within the database
provides page numbers on the web page itself, include in your citation the number
of the page or pages referenced. Then simply add the following three elements:
1. the name of the database, in italics;
2. the medium of publication (Web); and
3. the date you accessed the article.
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
67
A Newspaper or Magazine Article from a Database
Author’s name. “Title of Article.” Original Source of Article date of publication:
page number(s). Database used. Web. Date accessed.
Zeiger, Lisa. “Banking Etiquette: How to Hold Your Temper.” High Line Times 28
June 2013: D5. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 14 Dec. 2013.
In-Text Citation: (Zeiger).
An Article in a Scholarly Journal from a Database
Author’s name. “Title of Article.” Original Source of Article volume number.issue
number (date of publication): page number(s). Database used. Web. Date
accessed.
Ho, Elaine Lynn-Ee. “Embodying Self-Censorship: Studying, Writing and
Communicating.” The Royal Geographic Society 40.4 (Dec. 2008): 491-99.
JSTOR. Web. 20 May 2013.
In-Text Citation: (Ho).
Points of View Database: Book
Name of Author(s). “Title of Article or Chapter.” Title of Book. Name of Publisher:
Place of publication, date of publication: page number(s). Database used. Web.
Date accessed.
Belanger, Craig, and H. Newton. “The Patriot Act Threatens Liberty.” Homeland
Security and Civil Liberties. N.p.: Great Neck, 2011: 71-79. Points of View
Reference Center. Web. 20 Jan. 2012.
In-Text Citation: (Belanger and Newton).
CultureGrams Database
CultureGrams provides a wide variety of source material, which calls for
flexibility. Cite what you can.
“Title of Work.” Date originally published, if appropriate. Database used. Web.
Date accessed.
“Landscape.” 2006. CultureGrams Photo Gallery. Web. 26 May 2012.
In-Text Citation: (“Landscape”).
“John.” Interview. CultureGrams World Edition. Web. 5 Oct. 2012.
In-Text Citation: (“John”).
“Montana: Little Bighorn.” CultureGrams States Edition. Web. 25 June 2012.
In-Text Citation: (“Montana”).
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
68
Graphics from a Database
“Title of Graphic.” Graphic type. Publisher, date of publication. Database used.
Web. Date accessed.
“Iraq.” Map. Globic, 1999. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 19 Mar. 2009.
In-Text Citation: (“Iraq”).
“Small Business, Big Employer.” Chart. MCT, 16 Mar. 2009. SIRS Issues
Researcher. Web. 31 Mar. 2009.
In-Text Citation: (“Small Business”).
Reference Book Article from a Database
Author’s name (if known). “Title of Article.” Title of Book. Edition and volume, if
provided. City of publication: publisher, year. Page number(s). Database used.
Web. Date accessed.
McFadden-Gerber, Margaret. “Jane Eyre.” Masterplots. Pasadena: Salem, 2010.
1-4. Literary Reference Center. Web. 1 June 2012.
In-Text Citation: (McFadden-Gerber).
*
*
*
Finally, a word about CITATION GENERATORS.
Admittedly, all this attention to detail can be confusing and definitely timeconsuming. Why bother with it—or this handbook—when databases and a
variety of online citation generators will kick out works-cited entries formatted
according to MLA for you.
Well, buyer beware.
These sites promise MLA-formatted entries that you can simply paste into your
document after entering the appropriate information in the appropriate field. But
they promise much more than they can deliver. The entries generated by sites like
Son of Citation Machine, databases, and even citation tools within programs like
Word, are simply unreliable. Your teacher can tell at a glance when you use one
of these tools instead of following this handbook and will evaluate accordingly.
See for yourself. Investigate these citation generators a bit on your own, and as
you do, keep in mind that every citation generator claims that what it generates
conforms to MLA. And yet, somehow, each differs from the other. Compare the
results from SCM, CiteFast, and MLA on the following page.
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
69
Citefast:
“Cellphone Use Linked to Selfish Behavior in Smith Marketing Study.”
Robert H. Smith School of Business - University of Maryland,
College Park. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Apr. 2013.
SCM:
“Cellphone Use Linked to Selfish Behavior in Smith Marketing Study.”
Robert H. Smith School of Business. University of Maryland. Web.
15 Apr 2013.
MLA:
“Cellphone Use Linked to Selfish Behavior in Smith Marketing Study.”
Smith School News. Robert H. Smith School of Business, U of
Maryland, n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2013.
Citation-generating sites do not supply all the fields you may need to compose a
more complex entry. You will find yourself guessing about what to input where
because of this lack of flexibility. You may not even understand what it is you
are really doing. How could you, if you count on the site to do your work for
you?
The only thing you can trust about these entries is their inaccuracy. The editors at
MLA will not endorse sites or tools such as these precisely for that reason. You
will achieve greater accuracy by simply following the examples provided in this
handbook. Trust us; the hard work has already been done. If you do resort to
using these tools you must—at the very least—compare the entry you generated
with the corresponding entry provided within section C of the handbook. We
think your comparison will be eye-opening and that in the end, you will find that
using these sites requires more effort than simply following the handbook in the
first place. We are also confident that by following this handbook, you will
actually learn something.
Ultimately, you will do yourself a great disservice if you rely solely on these sites.
Learning to navigate this handbook will help prepare you for college and the
workplace. You will be far more knowledgeable about the principles behind
documentation than those who take shortcuts.
*
*
*
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
70
ABBREVIATING PUBLISHERS’ NAMES
In the list of works cited, shortened forms of publishers’ names immediately
follow the cities of publication. In shortening publishers’ names, keep in mind
the following guidelines:
• Omit articles (A, An, The), business abbreviations (Co., Corp., Inc., Ltd.),
and descriptive words (Books, House, Press, Publishers).
•
•
•
•
When citing a university press, always add some variation of the
abbreviation UP (Montana State UP; U of Montana P) because the school
itself (Montana State, University of Montana) may publish independently
of its press.
If the publisher’s name includes the name of a person (W.W. Norton), cite
the surname only (Norton).
If the publisher’s name includes the names of more than one person, cite
only the first of the surnames (Farrar, Harcourt, Harper, Houghton,
McGraw, Prentice, Simon).
Use standard abbreviations whenever possible (Acad., Assn., Soc., UP).
If the publisher’s name is commonly abbreviated with capital initial letters
and if the abbreviation is likely to be familiar to your audience, use the
abbreviations as the publisher’s name (GPO, MLA, ALA). If your readers
are not likely to know the abbreviation, shorten the name according to the
general guidelines given above (Mod. Lang. Assn.).
Publishers sometimes use imprints, indicating a particular grouping of
their books. For example, Doubleday’s imprints include Anchor Books
and Crime Club. If the imprint is included on the title page, present it like
this: “Anchor-Doubleday”; “Crime-Doubleday.”
Below you will find examples of how the names of various publishing companies
are shortened.
*
*
*
Publishing Companies
Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. ...................................................... Knopf
American Library Association ........................................ ALA
Arkham House Publishers ................................................ Arkham
Ashgate Publishing ........................................................... Ashgate
Basic Books ..................................................................... Basic
Benjamin Cummings ........................................................ Cummings
Center for Applied Linguistics ......................................... CAL
Charles Scribner’s Sons ................................................... Scribner’s
Eastgate Systems ............................................................. Eastgate
Educational Resources Information Center ..................... ERIC
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
71
Farrar, Straus, Giroux, Inc. .............................................. Farrar
Franklin Watts ................................................................. Watts
Gale Research, Inc. .......................................................... Gale
Giulio Einaudi Editore ..................................................... Einaudi
Government Printing Office ............................................ GPO
Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc. .................................... Harper
HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. ......................................... Harper
Harvard Law Review Association ................................... Harvard Law Rev. Assn.
Houghton Mifflin Co. ...................................................... Houghton
Librairie Larousse ............................................................ Larousse
Little, Brown, and Company, Inc. ................................... Little
Look Again Press ............................................................. Look Again
Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. ....................................... Macmillan
McGraw-Hill, Inc. ........................................................... McGraw
The Modern Language Association of America .............. MLA
Moonshine Cove Publishing ............................................ Moonshine Cove
The National Council of Teachers of English ................. NCTE
The National Education Association ............................... NEA
Random House, Inc. ........................................................ Random
Simon and Schuster, Inc. ................................................. Simon
Social Issues Resource Series .......................................... SIRS
Soho Press ........................................................................ Soho
St. Martin’s Press, Inc. .................................................... St. Martin’s
Vamplit Publishing ........................................................... Vamplit
W.W. Norton and Co., Inc. .............................................. Norton
University Presses
Cambridge University Press ............................................ Cambridge UP
The MIT Press ................................................................. MIT P
State University of New York Press ................................ State U of New York P
University of Chicago Press ............................................ U of Chicago P
University Press of Mississippi ....................................... UP of Mississippi
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
72
Sample B: Research Writing
McAuley i
Chris McAuley
Mrs. Lang
Fiction and Film/5
27 December 2013
Film in the 1930s
Thesis Statement: Filmmaking was just beginning to develop in the 1930s, yet the
movies of that period were instrumental to the collective national psyche because they
offered Americans a momentary escape from the recession.
I.
II.
The technology behind movies (major heading)
A.
The end of silent films (subheading)
B.
The development of talkies (subheading)
The Mitchell camera (detail)
2.
The ribbon microphone (detail)
3.
Synchronous sound (detail)
The business of movies (major heading)
A.
B.
III.
1.
The guilds (subheading)
1.
The Screen Actors Guild (detail)
2.
The Screen Writers Guild (detail)
3.
The Screen Directors Guild (detail)
The studios (subheading)
1.
The Big Five (detail)
2.
Typecasting and stereotypes (detail)
3.
Specialization of studios (detail)
a.
Romances, comedies, musicals (subdetail)
b.
Social commentaries (subdetail)
The growth and role of censorship (major heading)
A.
Women as sex objects (subheading)
B.
Boycotts (subheading)
C.
The Breen Office (subheading)
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
73
McAuley 1
Film in the 1930s
In 1929, the stock market crashed and America went into a downward spiral that
would become known as the Great Depression. During this era, in the 1930s, businesses
across the country suffered, unemployment rose 400%, the Dust Bowl destroyed crops
and farms across the Midwest, and 28% of Americans were without a form of income
(Gard 112). The U.S. government looked for any way to circumvent the economic crisis,
while Americans simply looked for a way to cope, for any distraction from the hard
reality of their everyday lives. Though millions were financially crippled, they turned to
the thing that had always been a comfort: entertainment. The movie industry was not able
to avoid the chaos of the Depression, but it survived and grew during that period
(“Disney”; “Hollywood”). Filmmaking was just beginning to develop in the 1930s, yet
the movies of that period were instrumental to the collective national psyche because they
offered Americans a momentary escape from the recession.
Talkies, the first movies with sound, first developed during the 1920s, but 1930s
technology improved sound and picture quality. The Mitchell camera and the ribbon
microphone were the most significant developments during this period. The Mitchell
camera surpassed the commonplace Bell and Howell camera in 1930 because it was
quieter during filming. In 1931 the ribbon microphone was invented. It was directional;
the directors could direct the microphone so it could locate the sound, which increased
sound quality by decreasing background noise (“Lights!” 65). Synchronous sound, also
developed in the 1930s, recorded sound during filming instead of re-recording and
voicing over the entire movie, which saved money in the end (Keegan).
The technology behind filming was not the only factor that changed in Hollywood;
the business of making movies changed as well. By the end of the decade, the Screen
Actors Guild, the Screen Writers Guild, and the Screen Directors Guild formed. These
guilds worked to unify and protect those behind and in front of the camera (Pells and
Romer). By the mid-1930s, studios that came to be known as the “Big Five” formed.
These included RKO, MGM, Loew’s Inc., Warner Brothers, and a company founded by
two former Warner Brothers employees, 20th Century-Fox (Shenn, Winsple, and Crew).
These studios started signing actors specifically to their movies, developing the first
typecasts and stereotypes (Thompson). MGM, 20th Century-Fox, and Paramount were
the most popular producers of musicals, comedies and romances. But Warner Brothers
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
74
McAuley 4
Works Cited
“Disney Releases Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.” History.com. A&E Television
Networks, 2013. Web. 29 Apr. 2013.
Gard, John. Introduction to Life during the Depression. New York: Bantam, 2012. Print.
“Hollywood and the Great Depression.” IMDb. IMDb, 2006. iPhone App.
Keegan, Rebecca. “Hollywood to Depression Era: Bring It!” Time 21 Mar. 2008: 39-45.
Print.
“Lights! Camera! Action!” Technologies of Yesteryear. Bozeman: Mont. State UP, 2012.
Print.
“Movie Stars: 1930 - 1939.” Narr. Ira Glass. This American Life. NPR. KBMS, Bozeman,
30 Apr. 2013. Radio.
Onct, Warner, et al. “Economic Inequality through the Eyes of Depression-Era
Hollywood Movies.” Film School Journal 7.12 (Apr.-May 2013): n. pag. SIRS
Issues Researcher. Web. 15 May 2012.
Pells, Richard H., and Christina D. Romer. “The Golden Era of Hollywood.”
Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, 16 Nov. 2006. Web. 29
Apr. 2013.
Rudolph, Kalie. “The Blonde Bombshell.” Cartoon. The New Yorker 17 Oct. 2012: 86.
Print.
Shenn, Rose, George Winsple, and Harold Crew. “Hollywood Studios and Movie Star
Contracts: Indentured Glamour.” Hollywood Reporter 14 May 2010: 27+. Points of
View Reference Center. Web. 30 Apr. 2013.
“Studio Shame: The Enslavement of Judy Garland.” Hollywood Hell. N.p., n.d. Web. 15
June 2013.
Thompson, Jim H. “Surviving Stereotypes: Growing Up Girlie.” 205 N. 11th Ave.,
Bozeman, MT. 10 Sept. 2012. Lecture.
Watson, Kendall. “What Movies Mean to Us in Hard Times.” Introduction. Depression
Era Filmmaking. N.p.: Mann, 2005. Print.
The Wizard of Oz. Dir. Victor Fleming. 1939. Warner Bros., 1999. DVD.
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
75
NOTES
Proofread carefully to see if you words out.
If you reread your work, you will find
on rereading that a great deal of repetition
can be avoided by rereading and editing.
A writer must not shift your point of view.
—Wm. Safire, How Not to Write:
The Essential Misrules of Grammar, 2005
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
76
GLOSSARY OF USAGE
Interviewer:
Hemingway:
Interviewer:
Hemingway:
How much rewriting do you do?
It depends. I rewrote the ending of Farewell to Arms, the last
page of it, thirty-nine times before I was satisfied.
Was there some technical problem there? What was it that had
stumped you?
Getting the words right.
— Ernest Hemingway
(1899-1961)
interview, Paris
Review, 1958
*
*
*
This glossary provides guidance in determining the correct usage of a word, including
certain words and expressions you should avoid completely when speaking or writing for
formal situations.
Elements of Writing, MacMillan’s English, and Student’s Book of College English
provided many of the following entries.
a lot, alot This means “a large amount” and is always written as two words. Some
authorities suggest avoiding it altogether in formal writing.
•
•
A lot of television programs show too much television violence.
Many television programs show too much television violence.
accept, except Accept is a verb that means “to receive” or “to agree to.” Except is
usually a preposition that means “but.”
•
•
Joan decided to accept Burt’s proposal of marriage.
The restaurant is open every day except Monday.
advice, advise Advice is a noun. Advise is a verb.
•
•
His advice to me was to leave town by noon.
I advise you to start walking and not look back.
affect, effect Although affect and effect sound nearly the same, they should not
be confused. Affect is a verb that means “to cause a change in, to influence.”
Effect may be a noun or a verb. As a noun it means “result.” As a verb it means
to “to bring about or accomplish.”
The full moon effects a notable change in his personality (verb meaning “brings
about”). It affects the growth of his hair and the development of his teeth and nails
(verb meaning “to influence”), and it has a destructive effect on his familial,
professional, and romantic relationships (noun meaning “result”).
all ready, already Already means “previously” or “by the designated time.” All ready
means “all set, all prepared.”
• You’ve already reminded me that I owe you money.
• The meal is all ready. Let’s eat!
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
77
all right, alright Write this expression as two words. Although often seen in print as
one word, most authorities prefer all right.
•
I hope the baby is all right.
all together, altogether All together means “joined in a group.” Altogether means
“thoroughly” or “totally.”
•
•
The kids pooled their money and all together bought a gift for their teacher.
Your writing is altogether obscure.
A.M., P.M. (or a.m., p.m.) Either capitals or lowercase are acceptable, but be
consistent in your writing.
amount, number Amount and number both refer to quantity. Use amount when
referring to nouns that cannot be counted. Use number when referring to nouns that can
be counted.
•
•
A huge amount of lava spurted from the erupting volcano.
A number of volcanoes are still active today.
anxious, eager Anxious suggests worry or fear, as in anxiety. Eager suggests
enthusiasm.
•
•
I waited anxiously for the news about the hurricane.
The whole town waited eagerly for the arrival of the championship team.
awfully See really, truly, very entry.
a while, awhile A while is made up of an article and a noun. In and for often come
before a while, forming a prepositional phrase. Awhile is an adverb; it follows an action
verb.
•
•
Stay right here for a while.
I hope you planned to wait awhile.
bad, badly Always use bad as an adjective, typically after a linking verb. Use badly as
an adverb. Badly usually follows action verbs.
•
•
•
•
The machine made a bad copy. (adjective)
The potato smelled bad. (adjective following linking verb)
I felt bad about your poor grades. (adjective following linking verb)
His cut is bleeding badly. (adverb following action verb)
between, among Use between when referring to two things at a time, even though
they may be part of a group consisting of more than two.
•
•
•
Take the seat between Alicia and Noreen in the third row.
What is the difference between Anna Pavlova and other ballet dancers?
The manager could not decide which of the four players to select because there
was not much difference between them. (Although there are more than two
players, each one is being compared with the others separately.)
Use among with groups of three or more:
•
•
The committee members argued among themselves.
We were able to collect only ten dollars among the four of us.
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
78
bring, take Bring means “to come carrying something.” Take means “to go carrying
something.” Think of bring as related to “come” and take as related to “go.”
•
•
Bring that box over here.
Now take it to the basement.
cannot, can not Both forms of this word are correct; however, cannot is more widely
used and accepted. Because can not is often considered an error, it is best to use only in a
context suggesting an impossibility, or one calling for wording in the vein of “not only,
but also.”
•
•
Peg can not make an inedible pasty.
John can not only face adversity, but he does so with courage and humor.
compose, comprise Compose means “to make up, to constitute.”
Comprise means “to be made up of, to encompass.”
•
•
Thirteen separate colonies composed the original United States.
The United States once comprised thirteen separate colonies.
continual, continuous Continuous means “completely uninterrupted, without any
pause.” Continual means “frequently repeated, but with interruptions or pauses.”
•
•
•
•
The continuous noise at the party next door kept us awake.
The patient received continuous, around-the-clock care.
He had a bad cold and blew his nose continually.
She changed jobs continually.
could of, might of, must of, should of, would of After could, might, must, should
or would, use the helping verb have, not the preposition of.
•
•
I could have danced all night.
I might have won the singing award if I had not lost my voice the day before.
different from, different than Different from is preferable in all circumstances.
disinterested, uninterested Disinterested means “impartial, unbiased.” Uninterested
means “bored, indifferent.”
•
•
A disinterested judge is necessary for a fair trial.
The audience was uninterested in the boring play.
each Each takes a singular verb and a singular pronoun.
•
Each breed of dog has its own virtues.
emigrate, immigrate Both terms refer to leaving one country to live in another; they
differ only in perspective. One who emigrates leaves his country to live in another. One
who immigrates enters a new country to call it his home.
•
•
Gregor emigrated from his home in Germany so he could settle in America.
Gregor left Germany and immigrated to America to begin a new life.
farther, further Use farther for geographic distance, further for everything else.
•
•
Manhattan is eighteen miles farther down I-90.
We should discuss that matter further.
SGHS Writer’s Handbook
79
fewer, less Use fewer when referring to items that can be counted. Use less when
referring to amounts, which are measured, rather than counted. Less is also used with
nouns that are seen as a single amount or quantity.
•
•
•
Buy fewer apples than you did last week.
We cooked less rice last night.
The rent was less than $400. (The money is treated as a single sum, not as
individual dollars.)
good, well Always use good as an adjective. Well may be used as an adverb of manner
telling how ably something was done or as an adjective meaning “in good health.”
•
•
•
•
The child is a good speaker. (adjective)
The child looks good in that coat. (adjective after linking verb)
The child speaks well. (adverb of manner)
The child is not well right now. (adjective meaning “in good health”)
he/she, his/hers, him/her, he or she, his or hers, him or her These efforts to
achieve gender equality in language can sound strained and pompous. Instead, use a
plural subject and pronoun, choose one gender or the other when writing generically, or
reconstruct the sentence to eliminate what some perceive as sexist language.
Poor:
Better:
Better:
Better:
If a student is late, he/she will receive a tardy.
Students who are late will receive tardies.
If a student is late, she will receive a tardy.
Any student late for class will receive a tardy.
Hopefully Hopefully is an adverb, which means that it modifies and usually appears
next to or close to a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Think “with hope”:
•
•
The farmers searched hopefully for a sign of rain.
Hopefully, the children ran down the stairs on Christmas morning.
Hopefully does not mean “I hope, he hopes, it is hoped that . . .” Avoid using it in
sentences like the following:
•
•
Hopefully, we can deal with this mess this week.
The new driver's license program, hopefully, will cut down on traffic fatalities.
I, me I functions as the subject in a sentence or clause, and as a complement in “It is I.”
Me is the object of a verb or preposition.
•
•
He gave the book to me.
For me, nothing beats chocolate pudding.
To determine which is correct is sentences like, “Nobody is stronger than I (or me),”
complete the sentence with a verb to see which makes more sense.
Wrong: Nobody is stronger than me (am).
Right: Nobody is stronger than I (am).
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I believe, in my opinion, personally Often unnecessary and usually best avoided in
persuasive writing. You are the author of the paper, and as such, it is understood that
what you are writing is what you believe. I think, I believe, in my opinion, and personally
weaken the tone of your writing. Persuade the reader. State your opinion forcefully, as
fact. (This is not to say, however, that you should fudge facts.)
Poor: I think the electronics policy is fair to everyone.
Better: The electronics policy is fair to everyone.
imply, infer Something implied is something suggested or indicated, though not
expressed. Something inferred is something deduced from evidence at hand.
•
•
Farming implies early rising.
Since he was a farmer, we inferred that he got up early.
irregardless Not standard English. The correct term is regardless.
its, it’s, its’ These three-letter words cause more errors than any other grouping of
letters in the English language. Its is the possessive form of it. It’s is a contraction of it
is and should never be used unless it means precisely this. The English language has no
such form or word as its’.
• The dress has lost its shape. (possessive of “it”)
• I think it’s going to rain. (contraction of “it is”)
-ize Avoid coining verbs by adding -ize to a noun. Many good and useful verbs do end
in -ize: summarize, itemize, harmonize, fertilize. But creating your own can result in an
abomination like “containerize.” Be suspicious of -ize; let your ear and your eye guide
you. Usually a useful verb already exists. Why write “utilize” when there is the simple,
unpretentious “use”?
lay, lie People often confuse these two words. Lay means “to put” or “to place”; it
takes a direct object. Lie means “to recline” or “to be positioned”; it never takes an
object. Take care to distinguish between the two.
•
•
Lay the bar of soap on the edge of the sink.
I like to lie under a shade tree in the summer.
Some struggle with the principal parts of these verbs. Understand that participles require
a helping verb, and that the past tense of lie is lay. Note the following:
Lie: to rest or recline
Present Tense: lie
Past Tense: lay
Present Participle: lying
Past Participle: lain
Lay: to put or place
Present Tense: lay
Past Tense: laid
Present Participle: laying
Past Participle: laid
lead, led As a noun, lead has various meanings (and pronunciations).
•
•
•
The student had no lead for his pencil.
The reporter wanted a good lead for her story.
Which athlete is in the lead?
The past tense of the verb lead is led.
•
•
The president always leads the meetings.
I led the horse to water and made him drink.
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like Not to be used for the conjunction as. Like governs nouns and pronouns; before
phrases and clauses the equivalent word is as.
•
•
•
•
He drives like a maniac.
Chloë smells like a rose.
We spent the evening as in the good old days.
She thinks as I do in this matter.
loose, lose Loose means “free,” “not firmly attached,” or “not fitting tightly.” Lose
means “to have no longer,” “to misplace,” or “to fail to win.”
•
My watch is so loose that I’m afraid I will lose it.
may be, maybe May be is a verb form meaning “could be, can be.” Maybe is an
adverb meaning “perhaps.”
•
•
I may be wrong, but I feel that Light in August is Faulkner’s finest novel.
Maybe we ought to start all over again.
Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms. Do not use these titles when writing about historical, cultural or
scientific figures. Use these terms sparingly when referring to living people: the more
famous the person, the less need there is for any title. Refer to people by their last name
after you first introduce them in full.
Poor: Mr. Edgar Allen Poe wrote “The Raven”; Mr. Poe had a dark imagination.
Better: Edgar Allen Poe wrote “The Raven”; Poe had a dark imagination.
Because you are not on a first-name basis with such figures, you should never refer to
them by their first name: “Edgar had a dark imagination.”
Ms. Though Miss and Mrs. are still used, Ms. is now standard usage when referring to
women, married or single. Its equivalent is Mr.
none None means “no one” or “not one” and takes a singular verb and pronoun.
•
•
None of these women understands that she is a public servant.
None of those men is willing to accept his responsibilities.
Oftentimes Wordy and redundant. Use often.
O.K. Colloquial English, also spelled okay, or OK.
principle, principal Principal refers to something highest in importance or rank. It
also refers to the head of a school. Principle means “a basic truth, standard, or rule of
behavior.”
•
•
In the third act of the play, the principal character is kidnapped.
The Constitution was based on the principle that all men are created equal.
quiet, quite Quiet means “silent” or “almost silent.” Quite means “rather” or
“completely.” It can be used informally, as in “Quite the weather we’re having.”
raise, rise The verb raise means “to cause to move upward” and always takes an
object. Rise means “to go up”; it is an intransitive verb and so does not take an object.
•
•
We will raise the flag at sunrise.
A helium-filled balloon will rise high into the air.
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really, truly, very, awfully Use these words very sparingly. If really strong
emphasis is truly needed, use words awfully strong in themselves.
reason is because Redundant. Use reason is that-—or even better, because.
Poor: The reason I’m angry is because you lied to me.
Better: The reason I’m angry is that you lied to me.
Best:
I’m angry because you lied to me.
secondly, thirdly, etc. Unless you are prepared to defend beginning with firstly, do
not prettify numbers with -ly. Modern usage prefers first, second, third, and so on.
sic Sic means “thus” or “so” in Latin. Sic indicates that an obvious error in quoted
material is not yours, but that it appeared that way in the original. Enclose sic in brackets
when used within a quote; use parenthesis when the error is at the end of the quote. Note,
however, that the closing punctuation follows the parenthetical sic.
•
•
“Nothing can extinguish my intrest [sic] in Shakespeare.”
“Nothing can extinguish my interest in Shakespear” (sic).
sit, set Sit means “to place oneself in a sitting position.” Sit rarely takes an object. Set
means “to place” or “to put” and usually takes an object. Set may also be an intransitive
verb when it is used with sun to mean the sun is “going down” or “sinking out of sight.”
When set is used in this way, it does not take an object.
•
•
•
Sit down and stop talking.
Set the flowers on the mantelpiece, please.
The sun set in a blaze of color.
supposed to, used to Don’t forget the d in supposed and used.
than, then Than is a conjunction; it introduces the second element in a comparison; it
also shows exception. Then is an adverb that means “at that time,” “soon afterward,”
“the time mentioned,” “at another time,” “for that reason,” “in that case,” or “besides.”
•
•
•
•
•
Aaron is more athletic than Carl.
It is none other than our Japanese friend Tamotsu!
I remember it was hot then.
You bowl first, and then it will be my turn.
If you won’t tell him, then I will.
that, which, who Use who or that for people (preferably who, never which.) Use
which or that for things, never who.
•
•
•
•
Here is the man who will install the new carpet.
We decided to replace our old carpet, which we have had for nearly ten years.
The dealer is a person that stands behind a product.
It is the kind of carpet that will wear well.
It may help to remember that if a clause is necessary, or “essential,” to the meaning of the
sentence, it is not set off with commas. If a clause only gives additional information,
information “nonessential” to the sentence, it is set off with commas.
•
•
The griffin that is on our family’s coat of arms signifies bravery.
Griffins, which are mythological beasts, are seen on many coats of arms.
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their, there, they’re These simple and common words cause much difficulty. Their
is a possessive pronoun. There means “in or at that place.” They’re is a contraction of
“they are” and should not be used in formal writing.
•
•
•
•
•
•
This is their house.
Were you there when she arrived?
We are disappointed because they’re not coming.
I told you to hurry to the bus.
I too am impressed.
The two soldiers were too exhausted to run.
to, too, two Correct use of these words is largely a matter of careful spelling. To is a
preposition and the sign of an infinitive (to play, to eat, to study, to write). Too is an
adverb meaning "also" or "overabundance of." Two is the number after one.
• I told you to hurry to the bus.
• I too am impressed.
• The two soldiers were too exhausted to run.
try and, try to To try is to attempt, which means risking failure. You cannot try and
do something, since and implies that you will be successful. The correct expression
is try to.
Wrong: Leo will try and impress Trudy. (He may not, after all).
Right: Leo will try to impress Trudy. (Maybe he will, maybe he won’t.)
unique Unique means “one of a kind”; it cannot be more than that nor can it be
qualified. Nothing is “very unique,” “really unique,” or “more unique.” Nothing is “less
unique,” nor can it be “fairly, somewhat, rather, or totally unique.” It can only be unique.
where . . . at, where . . . to Both phrases are wordy and redundant, because where in
itself covers the at and to.
Wrong: Where are my keys at? Where are we going to?
Right: Where are my keys? Where are we going?
whether or not Whether means whether or not, and so is preferable.
Poor: We wondered whether or not it would snow.
Better: We wondered whether it would snow.
who, whom Who is the nominative case, whom is objective. When in doubt, substitute
she or he for who, and him or her for whom.
Wrong: “Who should we hire?” (We should hire he.)
Right: “Whom should we hire?” (We should hire him.)
Wrong: “Whom is at the door?” (Her is at the door.)
Right: “Who is at the door?” (She is at the door.)
who's, whose Who’s is a contraction of who is. Whose shows possession.
•
•
Who’s going to tell Mom about the broken lamp? (Who is)
Whose idea was this? (possessive of who)
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WORDS FREQUENTLY MISSPELLED
“My spelling is Wobbly. It’s good spelling but it Wobbles, and the letters get in the
—A. A. Milne (1882-1956)
wrong places.”
*
a lot (see D.1)
abbreviate
abdomen
abhor
absence
absurd
acceptable
accepted
accidentally
accommodate
accompanying
accustom
achieve
acknowledge
acquire
across
adolescent
advantageous
advice (see D.1)
advise (see D.1)
aesthetic
affect (see D.1)
aisle
all right (see D.2)
alcohol
allegiance
already (see D.1)
although
altogether (see D.2)
always
amateur
analyze
annihilate
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*
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anonymous
antidote
anxiety
anxious (see D.2)
apologize
apparent
arctic
argument
arithmetic
ascend
assassinate
associate
attendance
audience
autonomy
autumn
auxiliary
awkward
beginning
believe
benefited
bilingual
biscuit
bought
breathe
brief
broccoli
brought
budget
built
bureaucracy
buses
business
buying
cafeteria
calendar
cannot (see D.3)
canoeing
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captain
catastrophe
category
cemetery
certain
champagne
changeable
cheerful
chief
choose
colonel
colossal
coming
committee
concede
conceive
conscience
conscientious
conscious
consensus
convenient
correspondence
countries
courtesy
cried
criticize
debtor
decide
definite
delete
descend
descendant
describe
desert
desirable
despair
dessert
destroy
develop
difficulties
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dilemma
dining room
disabled
disagree
disease
distinction
divide
doesn't
dominant
doubt
doughnut
during
earring
easily
effect (see D.1)
efficient
eighth
eloquent
embargoes
embarrass
emigrate (see D.3)
enemies
enough
entrance
environment
entrepreneur
exaggerate
excellent
exercise
exhaust
existence
experience
extraordinary
familiar
fascinate
February
fiancé
fiancée
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fierce
fiery
foreign
foreseeable
forty
fourth
friend
frivolous
fuel
fulfilled
furniture
gaiety
gauge
genealogy
generally
government
governor
grammar
guard
guarantee
hammer
handkerchief
height
heroes
hierarchy
hors d’oeuvre
humorous
hurried
hygiene
hysteria
imaginary
immediately
immigrate (see D.3)
incidentally
independent
influence
intellectual
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interest
invitation
irresistible
itinerant
itself
jewelry
judgment
kangaroo
knight
knowledge
laboratory
ladies
laid (see D.5)
library
license
lieutenant
lightning
llama
loneliness
lying
magazine
maneuver
marriage
mathematics
meant
mediocre
messenger
meticulous
minute
miscellaneous
mischievous
Mississippi
misspelled
mortgage
mountain
muscle
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mystery
naive
necessary
neighbor
neither
neutral
nevertheless
niece
nineteen
ninety
ninth
no one
none (see D.6)
oblige
o'clock
occasionally
occurred
occurrence
offered
omission
opinion
opportunity
optimism
opulence
paid
pageant
pamphlet
parallel
partner
patient
peculiar
pedestrian
perceive
perceptible
perhaps
perseverance
personal
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personnel
pessimism
Philippines
physical
physician
physics
picturesque
pilgrim
pleasant
pneumonia
porpoise
poison
possession
potato
potatoes
precede
prefer
prejudice
prison
prevalent
privilege
probably
proceed
profession
pronunciation
pursue
quarter
quiet (see D.6)
quit
quite (see D.7)
radar
raspberry
realize
really (see D.7)
receipt
receive
repetition
replied
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representative
respectfully
restaurant
resumé
rhapsody
rhyme
rhythm
riding
route
running
safety
sandwich
schedule
scissors
seize
sense
sentence
separate
sergeant
several
shepherd
shining
shoulder
significant
silhouette
similar
sincerely
skiing
skis
sophomore
speech
strength
stretch
strictly
studying
subtle
succeed
supersede
summarize
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superstitious
surely
surprise
syringe
their (see D.8)
themselves
thorough
though
to (see D.8)
tomatoes
tomorrow
too (see D.8)
tortoise
toward
tragedy
transferred
translucent
transparent
traveling
tries
truly
twelfth
unnecessary
until
using
usually
vacuum
vague
valuable
vegetable
vengeance
vessel
vetoes
vigor
village
villain
visible
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weather
Wednesday
weigh
weight
weird
whether (see D.8)
withhold
woman
women
worshiping
writer
writhe
writing
written
yacht
yield
ENGLISH TERMS LIST
“Metaphors have a way of holding the most truth in the least space.”
—Orson Scott Card (born 1951)
Literature
acts: ................................. major divisions of action within a play; curtain falls
allegory: .......................... extended METAPHOR in which objects, persons, and actions in a
narrative are equated with meanings that lie outside the narrative itself
alliteration: ..................... the repetition at close intervals of initial consonant sounds
allusion: .......................... in literature, a reference to another literary work, person, place, or event
from MYTHOLOGY, history, religion, politics, sports, science, or
popular culture
antagonist: ...................... the chief CHARACTER or force that opposes the PROTAGONIST in a
literary work
archetype: ....................... a prototype; an original model on which all things of the same kind
are based
aside: ............................... part of a character’s DIALOGUE that is intended only for the audience
or a selected CHARACTER, purposely excluding others
character: ....................... a person (or animal, thing, or force) that takes part in the action
of a story
chorus: ............................ a group of actors speaking as one CHARACTER
climax: ............................ the turning point of the PLOT
comedy: .......................... a play dealing with human failings, follies, and foibles that are amusing
or absurd; includes a happy ending
comic relief: .................... a humorous scene, incident, or speech that breaks the tension in a
drama or fiction
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complication: .................. development in action that heightens tension to create suspense, leading
to the CLIMAX
conflict: ........................... the struggle between two opposing forces—PROTAGONIST vs.
ANTAGONIST (i.e., man vs. man, man vs. animal, man vs. nature)
cosmology: ...................... the way a culture views the physical and spiritual structure of
its universe
deity: ............................... a god or goddess
demigod: ......................... a mythological, semi-divine being, especially the offspring of a god and
a mortal; an inferior DEITY
dialogue: ......................... the conversation of the CHARACTERS
drama: ............................ a story that is written to be acted out before an audience
epic: ................................. a long narrative poem that tells of the adventures of HEROES who
embody the values of their particular civilizations
epilogue: ......................... final remarks in a play, addressed to the audience; follows the PLOT
epithet: ............................ a word or phrase describing a quality or characteristic of a person or
thing: “the grey-eyed goddess” (Athena) or “rosy-fingered dawn”; can
be used in place of a name: “man’s best friend,” or to express contempt
or hostility: “you dirty rat”
exposition: ...................... introduction of who, what, when, and where in the PLOT of a story
farce: ............................... a play in which anything goes, as long as it makes the audience laugh
fate: ................................. a force, principle, or power that predetermines events; the Fates: three
goddesses who govern individual human destiny
fiction: ............................. writing that contains some imaginary CHARACTERS and events
figurative language: ....... imaginative language intended to mean something other than
what it says
figure of speech: ............. a word or phrase that describes one thing in terms of another and is not
meant to be understood on a literal level
flashback: ....................... interruption of a narrative to show an episode that happened before the
present point in the story
foil: ................................... a character who is used as a contrast to another character
foreshadowing: .............. a hint given to the reader of what is to come
genre: .............................. the specific form of a literary work (e.g., novel, short story,
play, or poem)
golden mean: .................. the boundaries prescribed for a moderate life; living within limits
hero: ................................ a being endowed with great courage and strength, celebrated for bold
exploits and favored by the gods; often a DEMIGOD
hyperbole: ...................... deliberate exaggeration or overstatement that is not meant to be
taken literally
imagery: ......................... sensory details that provide vividness in a literary work and tend to
arouse emotions
irony: ............................. a contrast between what is expected or appears to be and what really is
lyric: ............................... a poem more concerned with feelings or images than with a story
metaphor: ....................... imaginative comparison between two essentially unlike things without
the use of like or as
meter: ............................. regular, repeating rhythm
mood: .............................. the prevailing feeling or atmosphere created in a story
motif: ............................. a particular element in a literary work that is found in many
other stories
mythology: ..................... a collection of stories about the origin and history of a people, their
DEITIES, and their HEROES
odyssey: .......................... a journey/quest in search of home and self; the Odyssey, Homer’s EPIC
about Odysseus’ return from the Trojan War
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onomatopoeia: ................ the use of words that imitate sounds
oracle: ............................. a person who transmits a prophecy from a DEITY; also the shrine or
the prophecy
oral tradition: ................. the means of transmitting the story and culture of a people through the
spoken word
oxymoron: ...................... a PARADOX in which two successive words apparently contradict
each other
paradox: ......................... a statement that seems contradictory but contains an element of truth
personification: ............... the giving of human qualities to animals, objects, or concepts
plot: ................................. a series of events that make up the action of a story, including
EXPOSITION, COMPLICATION, CLIMAX, and RESOLUTION
poetry: ............................ words that express ideas, events, or emotions imaginatively, generally
in a rhythmic pattern, sometimes containing rhyming elements
point of view: .................. the position from which a story is told (e.g., first person, third person
limited, omniscient)
prologue: ........................ opening lines introducing a drama’s CHARACTERS, SETTING, and
CONFLICT; precedes the PLOT
prose: .............................. writing that is structured in sentence and paragraph form
protagonist: .................... the chief or central CHARACTER in a literary work
pun: ................................. a play on words based on sound or meaning
resolution: ...................... the section of PLOT that works out and/or explains all problems posed
during the COMPLICATION and CLIMAX
rhyme: ............................ the repetition of sounds at the ends of words
satire: .............................. technique that employs wit to ridicule a subject, usually some social
institution or human foible, with the intention of inspiring reform
scenes: ............................. divisions within the ACTS of a play
setting: ............................ the time and place of a literary work
short story: ..................... short piece of PROSE FICTION with a limited number of
CHARACTERS, limited SETTING, and simple PLOT; produces a
single, unified effect
simile: ............................. imaginative comparison between two essentially unlike things, usually
using like or as
soliloquy: ........................ CHARACTER’s thoughts spoken aloud on stage
sonnet: ............................ a fourteen line poem usually written in iambic pentameter
stanza: ............................. a group of lines in a poem, considered as a unit
symbol: ........................... an object or event that represents something more than itself, frequently
an abstract idea or concept
theme: ............................. a central idea or underlying meaning expressed or implied in a
literary work
tone: ................................ the attitude of the author toward the subject and audience of a
literary work
tragedy: .......................... a DRAMA featuring a PROTAGONIST engaged in a morally
significant struggle ending in ruin or profound disappointment
tragic flaw: ...................... the personality trait that leads to the PROTAGONIST ’s downfall
in a TRAGEDY
*
*
*
“The time to begin writing an article is when you have finished it to your satisfaction.
By that time you begin to clearly and logically perceive what it is you really want to say.”
—Mark Twain (1835-1910)
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Composition
abstract: ......................... words that name concepts lacking physical form (e.g., democracy,
love, honor)
adjective: ........................ a word that describes or modifies a NOUN or PRONOUN
adverb: ............................ a word that modifies a VERB, ADJECTIVE, or another adverb; an
adverb tells how, when, where, why, how often, or how much
audience: ........................ the intended reader of a written work
clause: ............................. a group of related words that contains a subject and a predicate and that
is used as a SENTENCE part
cliché: .............................. an expression or PHRASE so overused that it lacks effectiveness
(e.g., “a word to the wise,” “at this point in time”)
clincher: .......................... the last SENTENCE, which summarizes or resolves the general idea of
the PARAGRAPH
coherence: ...................... the clear, sensible interrelationship of ideas within a written work;
generally achieved by careful ORGANIZATION, effective TRANSITIONS, and UNITY of
content
comma-splice error: ....... when only a comma joins two SENTENCES, the error is called a
comma splice (see run-on error)
concrete: ......................... words that name physical objects–things that can be seen, touched,
smelled, etc. (e.g., kiss, Bill of Rights, Nobel Peace Prize)
conjunction: .................. a word that joins words or groups of words
connotation: .................. what a word suggests beyond its basic dictionary definition
denotation: ..................... the strict, specific dictionary meaning of a word
dependent clause: .......... a subordinate CLAUSE, one that cannot stand alone as a SENTENCE;
an incomplete thought
descriptive: ..................... writing that makes the reader see, hear, feel, taste, or smell something
development: .................. support of ideas in a written work through explanations, reasoning, or
examples; thoroughly explaining or supporting general statements with
specific details
diction: ............................ choice of words
direct object: .................. a word that answers the question what? or whom? following
an action verb
drafting: ......................... producing the first written version of the piece of writing
(see writing process)
editing: ............................ removing errors in punctuation, capitalization, spelling, or usage
(see writing process)
essay: ............................... a group of related PARAGRAPHS that develops a central idea in a
well-organized manner; presenting a personal point of view, supported
through reasoning, explanation, examples, etc.
ethos: ............................... the character or quality of a speaker or writer as reflected in his work;
the characteristics demonstrated in the habits, culture or belief system
of an individual, community, or group
expository/
explanatory/
informative ...................... writing that informs the reader by explaining ideas and presenting facts
fact: ................................. something that is known to be true
form: ............................... the structure and length of a piece of writing (e.g., letter, poem,
ESSAY, play)
fragment error: .............. usually a PHRASE or DEPENDENT CLAUSE that has been
mistakenly capitalized and punctuated as if it were a complete
SENTENCE
independent clause: ....... a CLAUSE that can stand alone (contains a subject and a predicate, and
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is a complete thought; a main clause)
indirect object: ............... a word that answers the question to whom? for whom? to what? or for
what? following an action verb
interjection: ................... a word or PHRASE that expresses emotion or exclamation
logos: .............................. the logic or reasoning in a speech or an essay
mechanics: ...................... the conventions of writing: capitalization, punctuation, spelling,
and usage
narrative: ....................... writing that tells a story, real or imagined
noun: ............................... a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea
opinion: ........................... a personal judgment based on what one believes or feels to be true
organization: .................. the arrangement of ideas within a written work (e.g., chronological,
spatial, logical, etc.)
paragraph: ..................... a group of related SENTENCES that develops one main idea in a
well-organized manner
pathos .............................. that which evokes pity, sorrow, suffering, tenderness, or sympathy; an
appeal to emotion
persuasive/
argumentative: ............... writing that attempts to influence a reader to accept an idea, adopt a
point of view, or perform an action
phrase: ............................ a group of related words that lacks either a subject or a predicate
or both
predicate adjective: ....... an ADJECTIVE that follows a linking verb and further describes
the subject
predicate nominative: .... a NOUN or PRONOUN that follows a linking verb and renames or
further identifies the subject
preposition: .................... a word or group of words that shows the relationship between its object
(a NOUN or PRONOUN that follows the preposition) and another
word in the SENTENCE
prewriting: ..................... the gathering and producing of ideas; brainstorming, discussion,
experiences, or activities all serve as avenues to ideas for writing; the
writer also makes preliminary decisions about the PURPOSE,
AUDIENCE, and FORM of the writing (see writing process)
pronoun: ......................... a word that takes the place of a NOUN, a group of nouns, or
another pronoun
purpose: .......................... the reason for a particular piece of writing; the purpose and
AUDIENCE will influence the DICTION and FORM of the writing
revising: .......................... the critiquing, rearranging, removing, and adding of ideas, and the
refining of language choices in the draft; strengthens the content,
ORGANIZATION, and style of the writing, which may require several
more DRAFTS (see writing process)
run-on error: .................. two or more INDEPENDENT CLAUSES that are run together without
proper punctuation (see comma-splice error)
sentence: ......................... a group of words containing a subject and a predicate that expresses a
complete thought, begins with a capital letter, and ends with terminal
punctuation
simple predicate: ........... a VERB or verb phrase for the subject of the SENTENCE
simple subject: ............... the principal NOUN or PRONOUN that tells what a SENTENCE
is about
thesis statement ............... A single sentence that clearly and simply states the central, controlling
idea of the essay
topic sentence: ................ a statement that presents the general idea that is developed and clarified
by the rest of the PARAGRAPH
transition: ....................... a word or group of words that leads from one idea to the next, shows
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relationships between ideas, appears within and between
PARAGRAPHS, and contributes to the COHERENCE of a work
unity: ............................... the presentation of just one central idea without digression into
irrelevant or unrelated ideas
verb: ................................ a word that expresses action or a state of being
writing process: ............. a step-by-step approach to completing a piece of writing; a process that
is generally defined in four major steps (see prewriting, drafting,
revising, editing)
*
*
*
“The outcome of any serious research can only be to make two questions grow where
only one grew before.”
—Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929)
Research
bibliography: .................. an alphabetically arranged list of books, articles, and other sources
pertinent to a given topic
direct quotation: ............ an exact copy of text from an authoritative source, to be used sparingly
for impact; sometimes called a verbatim (word for word) quotation
documentation: .............. giving credit to the appropriate sources for every borrowed idea in the
paper, whether the idea is DIRECTLY QUOTED, SUMMARIZED, or
PARAPHRASED; achieved through brief PARENTHETICAL
CITATIONS in your text and a WORKS CITED LIST at the end
of your paper
ellipsis: ............................ three spaced dots surrounded by square brackets [. . .] used to indicate
the omission of material from a DIRECT QUOTATION
et al.: ............................... “and others” (from the Latin et alii); when entering a work written
by more than three authors on a WORKS CITED LIST, name only the
first author and add “et al.”
in-text/parenthetical
citation: ........................... a brief acknowledgment in your paper, wherever you use another ’s
words, facts, or ideas; usually contains just author’s last name and a
page reference; citations must clearly point to specific sources in the
WORKS CITED LIST
note card: ....................... index card that contains heading, identification of source, one idea from
the source material, and pagination
parenthetical/in-text
citation: ........................... a brief acknowledgment in your paper, wherever you use another’s
words, facts, or ideas; usually contains just author’s last name and a
page reference; citations must clearly point to specific sources in the
WORKS CITED LIST
plagiarism: ..................... failure to give credit to the appropriate sources for borrowed ideas; the
act of intentionally or unintentionally presenting another’s words or
ideas as your own
primary source: ............. an original writing by an author; a source (such as a map, cartoon,
recording, painting, photograph, or government document) originating
in a particular historical period
research: ......................... the process of gathering facts and evidence about a topic
research paper: .............. an organized essay in which the results of investigation and reasoning
that support a thesis are presented with DOCUMENTATION
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research thesis
statement: ........................ a statement (one sentence) that summarizes the central idea of the paper
and that can be defended by facts and evidence gathered in
RESEARCH
• A properly worded thesis statement for a research paper should (1)
be clear, comprehensible, and direct; (2) predict major divisions in the
structure of the paper; and (3) commit the writer to an unmistakable
course, argument, or point of view.
• A thesis is not an indisputable fact, nor a question, nor a personal
prejudice. Examples:
Fact:
Question:
Prejudice:
Thesis:
Victorian corsets were designed to narrow waistlines.
Why are pierced ears disgusting?
Tattooing hurts too much to be worth it.
People all over the world are willing to suffer
physically and emotionally for what they think is
beautiful.
secondary source: .......... a work that contains references to the works of others and/or to
another’s interpretation of a primary source
summary: ....................... a brief restatement of the major ideas from source material
working bibliography: ... a list of works to be consulted during the construction of the paper;
usually each work is cited on an individual index card
works cited list: .............. a list of those sources actually referred to in the paper and cited in the
PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS; the last page of a RESEARCH
PAPER
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Marks for Editing and Revising
SGHS Writer's Handbook