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LECTURE NOTES Course : PST 202; ETHNOBOTANY (3 Credits /Compulsory) Course Duration : 30hrs Teaching and 45hrs Practical Lecturer: BELLO, Omolaran Bashir Ph.D, M.Sc. (Ilorin), B.Sc. (Ibadan), OND (Computer Studies) Course: PST 204 Plant Morphology (2 Credits /Compulsory) Course Duration: 15hrs Teaching and 45hrs Practical E-mail : [email protected], obbello [email protected] [email protected] Office Location: Department of Biological Sciences Consultation Hours; 2.30-4.00 pm Monday-Thursdays. ETHNOBOTANY Ethnobotany is defined by Martin (1995) as the study of people’s classification, management and use of plant resource for food, medicine, construction materials, feeding the livestock, fibres, gums, tannins, dye. It seeks to study people’s intellectual property. Ethno (as in ‘ethnic’) refers to people, culture, a culture’s collective body of beliefs, aesthetic, language, knowledge, and practice. The main objectives of ethnobotanical studies are Keep proper record of people’s knowledge of the plants world that is taking inventories of useful plants. Applying the result of the studies to biodiversity conservation and community development. Ethnobotanical study is an interface between several disciplines, integrating methods drawn from botany (especially taxonomy, pharmacologists), anthropology ecology, economics and linguistic. These are a few of the many branches of investigation that draw on cultural knowledge, and that begin with the prefix ethno: 1 Ethnobiology is the study of the relationships between people, the life forms surrounding them, and the environment in which they live, in the past or present. Ethnomycology is the study of folk knowledge of mushrooms and other fungi. Ethnoscience is the study of the various ways the world is perceived and categorized in different cultures. Ethnoscience regards the operational concepts in an indigenous knowledge system, and is sometimes called folk science. Folk classification and naming systems are also called folk taxonomy. Ethnomedicine is the study of traditional medicines, which includes concepts of what illness is and how healing occurs. Ethnopharmacology is the study of the uses, effects and modes of actions of naturallyoccurring drug compounds. This is a key field that often explains the effectiveness of herbal medicine, stimulants, analgesics, inebriants or psychoactive species. Ethnomusicology is the study of the music of different cultures, and musical instruments they make and use, which are often made of plant materials. Ethnomusicology may include the study of dance. Ethnoecology refers to a paradigm that is gaining ground in the early 21st century: Understanding and documenting how peoples perceive and manage the ecosystem. Botanists collect and identify plant specimens. Pharmacognosists conduct plant analysis of the medicinal properties of plants (phytochemistry) and possible anti-nutritional factors. Ecologists describe the local classification of vegetation and land use Anthropologists record ecological knowledge of the medicinal use of people over ages. Resource economists estimate the value of forest products. Linguistics study local names of plants and their uses. Zoologists study animal population that is dependent on the plant resources of the environment. HISTORY OF ETHNOBOANY. The use of plants as medicines predates written human history. Many of the herbs and spices used by humans to season food also yield useful medicinal compounds. The use of herbs and spices in cuisine developed in part as a response to the threat of food-borne pathogens. Studies show that in tropical climates where pathogens are the most abundant, recipes are the most highly spiced. Further, the spices with the most potent antimicrobial activity tend to be selected In all cultures vegetables are spiced less than meat, presumably because they are more resistant to spoilage. Angiosperms (flowering plants) were the original source of most plant medicines. Many of the common weeds that populate human settlements, such as nettle, dandelion and chickweed, have medicinal properties. A large amount of archaeological evidence exists which indicates that humans were using medicinal plants during the Paleolithic, approximately 60,000 years ago. (Furthermore, other non-human primates are also known to ingest medicinal plants to treat illness) In the written record, the study of herbs dates back over 5,000 years to the Sumerians, who created clay tablets with lists of hundreds of medicinal plants (such as myrrh and opium). In 1500 B.C., the Ancient Egyptians wrote the Ebers Papyrus, which contains information on over 850 plant medicines, including garlic, juniper, cannabis, castor bean, aloe, and mandrake. 2 IMPORTANCEOF ETHNOBOTANY Ethnobotany is very important because it traces the development of humanity, even the most ancient of civilizations relied upon agriculture and the domestication of certain forage, medical, fiber, culinary and plants used for dyes. Ethnobotany also traces the development of modern Medicine and Herbalism, the Paper Industry, The Chemical Industry, Rubber Industry also the Food Industry. Every year new species are being discovered or are being reconsidered for modern applications in all the above Industries and Sciences. Ethnobotany is considered a new, yet vast science drawing upon the studies of Botany, Anthropology, Phytochemistry, Sociology, Medicine as well as Agriculture. PEOPLE AND PLANTS All fresh is grass is the title of an inaugural lecture delivered by Prof. AA. Adegbola in Ife 1972. This indicates that directly and indirectly man depends on plant for his food and some other needs. The plants used by man as food are grouped as follows: STARCH PLANTS: These are sources of carbohydrate that supply energy needs of man. They are: CEREALS: the grass family (poaceae) rice, maize, sorghum, millet etc PSEUDOCEREALS: they are non-grass family whose grains are also consumed e.g. grain amaranthus (Amaranthus caudatus) pigweed and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum). ROOT AND TUBERS CROPS: e.g. sweet potato, Irish potato, yam, cassava, cocoyam. They are the main sources of industrial and pharmaceutical starch. SUGAR PLANTS: they produce sweet carbohydrates used to sweeten other foods and in the production of alcohol e.g. sugarcane, sugar beet, palm juice, sugar sorghum. Other sweetners that contain protein (non-carbohydrate sweeteners) are obtained from Dioscoreophyllum cumminsi (ewe gbodogi), protein mullein, Thaumatococcus danielli (eweran) (Protein thaumatin), Synsephlum dulcificum (agbayun-glycoprotein miraaculin). OIL OLANTS: oil is important as food source because oil supplies an average of 38kj energy. Oil is important in cooking (to modify taste and fragrance of food), they are sources of vitamins A,D,E,&F, phospholipids and steroids. Apart from cooking oil is important in lighting, burning, soap making, lubrication, painting, insecticides (neem seed oil), detergents, biodiesel for agricultural machineries. Sources of oil include fish oil, coconut, sunflower, rapeseed, groundnut, butter. The camphor nut oil has been reported to be highly drying and can be used as a replacement of linseed oil used to manufacture paints and varnish. ESSENTIAL OLILS: they are volatile oils that will not have a grease spot when a droplet is places on the filter paper. Being highly volatile they have distinctive odours and are used in various industries which include; perfume and cosmetics, industries for products like soap, ointments, powder etc. 3 In pharmaceutical preparations because of their antiseptic properties and to improve taste e.g. toothpaste. They are used to mask the odour of plastic, household spray, detergents etc. They are used as solvents for technical purposes. They are used in food industry to produce lemonades, liqueurs, and confectionary. Some pant sources of essential oil are peel of lemon, lime and grape fruit, grass oils of lemon grass, eucalyptus oil, lavender oil. PROTEIN PROVIDING PLANTS: they are sources of plants protein. Examples are Vigna unguiculata, Cayanuc cajan etc. VEGETABLES: there are three the groups of vegetables based on their part of part consumed. They are: Leaf vegetables: Amaranthus, Celosia, Bitter leaf. They are sources of minerals, vitamins and proteins. Fruit vegetables: they contain fewer nutrients but they stimulate appetite by their taste and smell e.g. tomato, beetroot. Tuber/root vegetable: e.g. onion, ginger, garlic and carrot. They serve as spices. FRUITS: they are plant products taken mostly for their refreshing or aromatic taste. The fruits of such plants are flashy and juicy are mostly edible raw. They form the original food of man and also attract animals in the wild. They play important role in nutrition and health. The contents of fruits that are of their importance in healthcare delivery are: Organic acids: (malic acid, tartaric acid and citric acid): they act as mild laxatives (encourage defecation) or diuretics (encourage urination). These are the basis of fruit cures. Pectins and Phenolic compounds: they regulate the pH in the intestine. Normalize the intestinal flora and detoxify heavy metals. The flavonoids: (e.g. hesperidin and naringin in citrus fruits): strengthens the body tissues and regulate capillary permeability. Vitamin A: e.g. mango, pawpaw. Vitamin C: e.g. citrus, guava. NUTS: they are fruits with dry shells e.g. coconut, walnuts. The health importance of nuts is in their high nutritional value energy content and protein content for example: % protein % oil % starch and sugar Cashew nut 20 45 26 Almond 20 55 20 Walnut 15 65 13 4 BEVERAGES AND STIMUALNTS: these are plants that contain chemical compounds that gives physical and mental alertness, suppress hunger and thirst, breakdown psydic inhibitions to produce fantastic dreams (hallucination) and sedate. Some are narcotics. EAXAMPLES of plants includes tobacco, coffee, cacao, tea, Indian hemp, kolanut etc SPICES: These are plants that have seasoning and condiment qualities. They are used to improve the taste of food. They include mustard, capsicum pepper. Vanilla, ginger, thyme, garlic etc FIBRE PLANTS: these are plants from vegetables fibres and finest fabric that can be detained for processing into textiles use for clothing and bed-linen, bags, and other packaging materials, floor coverings, booms and binding materials. Plants materials included in the fibre work are: hemp, cotton, kenaf, jute, agave, raffia. some less important fibre plants are: kapok, hemp, urena, luffa. ELASTOMERS: these are natural and synthetic polymers with rubber-elastic properties. The most outstanding source of natural elastomer is rubber plant (Hevea brasillensis). The natural elastomer has its uses in the production of tyres and inner tube because of ready vulcanization. It is also used in making the protective wears against AIDS virus and other STD diseases. GUMS AND MUCILAGES: they are polymeric carbohydrates obtained from some plants for use in food industries as stabilizers, emulsifiers and to increase viscosity. They are also used as binders for drugs in pharmaceutical industries and as stay in textiles. Sources in plants include: bark gums, endosperm of seeds for endosperm gum, seed coat for seed coat gums and from mucilaginous covering for mucilage gums. Sources especially of mucilage’s are algae and bacteria. RESINS: just like gum, they are exudates produced as a result of wounding the bark of a plant. They are exuded in liquid state, but many solidify in the air due to evaporation of water. The volatile component of resin can be collected by distillation for use in perfumery. The remains called resins are hard and used technically for lacquers, varnishes. Some plants sources are Finus pinaster, Daniella oliveri etc. TANNING MATERIALS: They are phenolic compounds obtained from the bark, wood, roots and fruits of some plants for use in leather formation from animal skins and technically to reduce the viscosity of drilling slurry from deep-drilling projects. Some plant source are Rhizophora mucronata, Eucalyptus spp., Caesalpinia spinosa, Acacia decurens etc. DYES and COLOURINGS: these are obtained from pigments of plants origin and are used for beautification of body, for clothing, decoration of homes, and in colouring in foods and drinks. They play major roles in the modern food and cosmetics industries. The colours obtained from vegetable pigment include: Red colour from the arthrocyanins in the vacuole. Yellow colour from the carotenoids in the plastids. Green colour is obtained from chlorophyll in the plastids. Blue from flowers of Chiloria ternatea or arthocyanus.. Te pigments obtained in the plastid are useful in cosmetic preparation and those of vacuole are used in drinks and confectionery industries. Dye is also used for cloth colouring e.g. indigo. Some plants sources of dyes include: Bixa orellana, Lawsonia inermis, Morinda sp., Hibiscus etc. 5 WAXES: they are fatty substances with a high melting point of 50-90oc obtained from exudates of some plants e.g. jojoba whose seeds contain 47-62% wax. They are used to coat fruits against desiccation, in cosmetics especially the production of lipstick, chew gum, carbon paper, shoe creams, floor polish etc. FORAGE & PASTURE PLANTS: they are plants used for the nourishment of the various domestic animals. The forage plants may be trees, shrubs or creeping in habit. They are used as fodder plants. Some plants used for human nutrition and livestock are maize, sorghum, cassava, cowpea, breadfruit, banana/plantain. Some forage and fodder plants are Andropogon gayanus, Andropogon tectorum, Axonopus compressus, Cynodon dactylon, Panicum maximum, Centrosema pubescences, e.t.c. GREEN MANURE PLANTS: these plans grown for incorporation into the soil to improve the status of organic matter and various plant nutrients on decomposition. They may as well be cut and used for mulching i.e. to cover the soil surface from direct sunlight and rain. Green manuring and mulching increases earthworm activities in the soil to increase soil nutrients status. The plants used for green manuring must be fast-growing, deep rooted and possibly able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Examples include Mexican sunflower, Crotalaria spp., Sebania sesban, Senna detusifolia. GROUND COVER PLANTS: these are deep-rooting, fast-growing and low nutrient demanding plants growing within plantation crops like rubber, oil pal e.tc. They may be creeping or erect shrubby plants. They function by protecting the soil from the impact of raindrops and the scorching effects of direct sunlight. They also prevent the growth of unwanted weed flower like Imperata cylinderica. Examples of ground cover plants are Mimosa invisa, Pueraria phaseoloides, Centrosema pubescence, Sema sophera etc. SOIL STABILZING PLANTS: as a result and deforestation, erosion occur to degrade the soil. In the regions barriers are constructed with deep-rooted shrubs like prosopsis and Acacia spp., to stabilize the loose sand. However in the humid region, the concern is to diminish the effect of flowing water especially in the terraced slopes. Grasses which form a thick root mass is used e.g. Vertiveria zizanioides, Cymtopogon citrates (lemon grass). Also banks and hedges of ditches can be protected from collapse by growing creeping plants like Cynodon dactylon, Passiflora foetida, Alternantheria brazilinensis etc. WIND BREAKS PLANTS: these are plants grown to break the speeds of strong winds thus protecting the sensitive crops like plantain/banana and cassava in the humid region and reducing soil erosion by wind in the arid region. Plants used are: Neem (Azadirachita indica), cashew (Anarcadium occidentale). They also provide firewood and are loped for charcoal production. They are useful as avenue trees to enhance the aesthetics of the environment and prevent storm from destroying the buildings. Examples of avenue plants are: Piuns spp., Eucalyptus spp., Thildergadia batteni, etc. SHADE TREES: these are plants grown to nurse tropical tree/cash crops in the forest few months/years of growth. Coca and kolanut are provided with ‘nurse plants’ on transplanting primarily to reduce transpiration until the root system of the young seedlings are welldeveloped. Good shade plants must have high crown which is not too dense as to reduce the sunlight more than 25%. Examples of such plants are Plantain, cassava, crotalaria spp, etc. 6 FENCING PLANTS: these are plants used to mark boundaries of fields and to keep away ravaging wild and domestic animals. Thorny plants and plants with bad-tasting or smelling leaves are useful for this purpose. Examples are Jaropha spp., Croton spp., Euphortra kamerunica, Thevetia nerifolia. SOCIO-CULTURAL USES OF PLANTS Plants are used for entertainment, divination, coronation, magic, body beautification etc For musical instrument and plant tools like Celtis zeniken, Afzelia Africana. Societal sanitation of criminals e.g. Myrianthus antoreus Coronation e.g. Newtouldia laevis Body beautification: Lawsonia inermis, Pterocampus osun. MEDICINAL PLANTS Sofowora (1982) describe a medicinal plant as any plant which contains a substance(s) that can be used for therapeutic purposes or which are precursors for the synthesis of useful drugs. Most of the medicinal plants are in the wild form where they are gathered. Due to the urbanization and industrialization expansion of agricultural activities, most of the habitat of these plants is being destroyed thus resulting in the threat of their population. This calls for the domestication of these wild plant to prevent their extinction and sustain the supply most especially yhose containing active substituent that cannot be synthesized by pharmacochemical industries and which cannot be substituted by other compounds. STORAGE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS Many medicinal plants are seasonal, some not easily accessible, available only in deep forests or mountain peaks. Such restrictions necessitate ways and devices to store them for future use. Dirt and other foreign substances should be removed. If washing is needed, it should be done quickly to minimize deterioration and loss of active substances. As a rule, all parts of the plant collected should be dried as soon as possible to avoid unnecessary waste of the drug materials through natural processes of denaturation, decay and fungal attacks. Some commonly used storage methods used by the Chinese are as follows: Sun-drying method: Spread the herbs over the dry beaches, patio or benches that are under the direct scorch of the sun until the materials turn dry and brownish. Shade-drying method: Some plant materials are preferably dried under shade at room temperature by wind action- because of heat-labile substances that they contain. As such, free circulation of air is important. Drying processes should be shortened, if higher drug contents are to be sought for. Floral and fruit materials should be dried by this methods. Heat-drying method: Some materials may be placed over an oven and dried under the intense heat released or under regulated soft heat. Plants that contain high sugar and starch are best preserved by this method. In places where the rain falls throughout the year, this method is strongly recommended. Other Special Methods: Succulent materials are usually washed first in boiling water or steam-cooked in a container before actually drying it. For spiny and hairy materials, remove the unwanted appendages. Some plant materials (e.g. succulent materials) may require cutting or sectioning before drying. In general, the moisture content of the dried plant materials should be less than 10% before storage. Moisture 7 content higher than 10% usually leads to growth of microorganisms and pest infestation with consequent drug deterioration. The dried plant materials should be placed in plastic containers or tightly covered bottles; brown coloured bottles are preferred as they minimize deterioration due to sunlight. Dry charcoal (separated from the medicinal plant) may be placed inside the bottles to absorb moisture. The storage place should be dry, well-ventilated, and spacious, lest fungi and insects may invade rampantly. Drug materials (dry ones) after proper processing can be kept in large open wooden shelves. The humidity of the storehouse should then be as low as possible. Materials rich in volatile oils are advised to be kept in airtight containers. Otherwise, their efficacy will decrease as time passes by. If all factors are favourable, the prepared drugs can be used even after years of storage. MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF PLANTS. The medicinal properties of plants include; Abortifacient - substances that causes abortion. Adaptogen - Substances that modulate hormones. Alterative - blood cleanser that restores proper functioning of the body. Anodyne – pain suppressants. Anti-allergic – substances that reduces allergic reaction. Anti-bacterial/virus/fungi – substances that prevents bacteria, virus and fungal infections respectively. Anti-depressant – relives depression. Anti- haemorrhage – substances that halt bleeding. Anti-hydrotic – drugs which checks ppersperation. Anti-neoplastic – substabces that prevent abnormal growth. Anti-pyretic - prevents fever. Anti-rheumatic – relives rheumatic pains. Anti-septic – substances that inhibits the growth of bacteria, fungi, and viruses e.g. Neem aqueous extract. Anti-spasmodic – substances that relives muscular spasm. Anti-tussive – substances that prevents coughing. Aperitive – stimulates appetite. Astrigent – substances that shrink tissues and prevents secretion of fluids i.e unwanted discharge. Cattartic – drugs that purge the system; strong laxative. Depurative – blood pufiying substances. Diaphoretic –substances that increase perspiration. Diuretic – substances that increase urination. Emetic – substances that causes vomiting. Emmenagogue – substances that bring on menstruation. Emollient – substances that softens the tissues. Eupeptic – substances that promote good digestion. Expectorant – substances that promotes ejection of fluid from the lung and trachea Haemostatic – substances that prevents bleeding and promotes clotting. Laxative – substances that promotes defecation. Nutritive – substances that promotes good nutrition. 8 Crexigenic – substances that stimulates appetite. Oxytocic – substances that promotes contraction of the uterus, aiding childbirth. Relaxant – promotes relaxation (either muscular or psychological) Spasmolytic – relives spasms or convulsions. Stimulant – stimulates activity of the body. Stomachic – stimulates activity of the body. Suppuration – hasten pus production. HERBAL MEDICINE PREPARATION This aim at extraction of active ingredients contained in plant materials for use in the management of ailments. They include among others the following: Decoction: putting the plant materials in cold water, boiling for 15-30 minutes, filter the mixture and administer when cold enough. Infusion: the process involves steeping the plant material (cut into pieces), into water, either boiled or cold water and leave for some minutes/hours. Strain thee water for oral administration or bathing. This is adopted for materials with readily dissolvable active principles. At time, the cold infusion is called MACERATE. Tincture: these are alcohol extraction of active principles in a medicinal plant. Alcohol effects dissolution of relevant ingredients than water and at the same time act as preventatives. Apart from alcohol, glycerine or vinegar may be used. Also, mixture of alcohol and water at specific proportion may be used. Pills: these are powders or herbal extracts incorporated in a suitable base such as starch, glycerine, gum or mucilage.. The mixture is made into a ball, held together by filler ingredients and may be coated. Capsules: the dry powdered herbs are packed into gelatinous container that will readily dissolve on contact with water. It helps in decent presentation of powdered herbal preparation. Cozenges: powdered herb is combined with sugar and mucilage. It is mostly used for preparations for oral and respiratory complaints like tonsillitis (belubelu, inflammation of the tonsil), mouth ulcers, sore throat and coughs. Syrup: this is masking a fluid preparation that has unpleasant taste with a sweetener like honey or sugar syrup. This is mostly used to prepare cough mixture or teething mixture for children. Simple syrup base is prepared by pouring 500ml of boiling water on 1:1kg of sugar. Heat and stir the mixture until the sugar dissolves and the mixture stars to boil. It is used for decoction and infusion, dissolve 350g directly in 500ml of the liquid preparation and heat gently until fully dissolve. It is advisable to use for gargles and cough medicines only. Oxymel: is a mixture of 5 parts of honey and 1 part vinegar into which the juice of unpleasantly tasting herbs plant parts is mixed e.g. juice of garlic. 9 COMMON MEDICINAL PLANTS AND THEIR USES. 10 S/N LOCAL NAME BOTANICAL NAME Caesalpinia bonduc COMMON NAME 1 Ewe Senyo 2 Ewe Kasan USES 3 Ewe Ela 4 Ewe dongoyaro 5 Ewe Ogede 6 Ewe Sepeleba 7 Guava leaf Psidium gaujava 8 Ewe Awoyoyo Croton penduliflorus 9 Ewe Apoka Cleistopholis patens 10 Ewe Arunsansan 11 Ewe Iranje Ageratum conyzoides Phyllanthus reticulatus 12 Ewe Elu Lonchocarpus cyanescens For making Kampala 13 Ewe Atori Glypheea bevis 14 Ewe Okan Cyclicodiscus gabunensis It is used to treat measles. The stick or stem is used as cane. Used for treatment of diabetes mellitus It is used in treatment of measles Smilax kraussiana Angraecum distichum Azadirachita indica Ensetee gilletji FAMILY It is used in the treatment of malaria It is used in the treatment of eczema It is a progress leaf It is used in the treatment of ringworm Neem Tree It is used in the treatment of malaria and typhoid is used in the treatment of malaria and typhoid It is used as disinfectant and treatment of skin diseases The spiritual people use it to enhance progress. is used in the treatment of ringworm It is used for bone treatment Spiritual people use it to promote sales and as pain reliever. Greenheart leaf 11 15 Ewe Mango Magnifera indica Mango Leaf 16 Ewe Atoo Melissa officinalis Lemon balm 17 Ewedu 18 Ewe Akoko 19 Ewe Abo 20 21 Ewe Afun Ewe Efinrin 22 Ewe Ewuro 23 Ewe Ipin 24 25 26 27 Jute Mallow Corchorus olitorius Newbouldia laevis Anona senegalensis Chieftancy leaf It is used in ceremonial activities. It is used for curing malaria Ocimum grattissinum Scent leaf Vernonia amygdalina BitterLeaf It is used for stomach pain and it is also used for cooking. Used in the treatment of measles It is used to cure pile It is edible Ficus exasperata Ewe Ogbo Parquetina nigrescens Ewe Akintola Eupatorium Taku odoretum Oganwo Khaya grandifoliola Apikan It is used for fever and diarrhoea. It is used in clearing digestion It is used as an antioxidant They are used in antifungi and antibacteria activities It is used for rubbing the body like balm for body pains and it is also used for body scent. It is used in cooking Datura metel Mahogany Devil’s Trumpet 12 It is used as a blood replenisher It is used to treat wounds. It is used to treat stomach pain In Uganda, the bark is used as fish poison. It is used to treat skin diseases. It is used as analgesic It is used as anticancer Used as antirheumatism If mixed with cannabis used to 28 Ewe Igbale Moringa olifera Moringa drumstick 29 Laali Lawsonia inermis Henna 30 Olowojeja Boerhavia diffusa Punarnava 31 Kasia Senna siamea Senna 32 Iru ekun Cyathula achyranthoides 33 Ejiarin-weere Momordica charantia 34 Ewe abafin Piliostigma reticulatum Bitter lemon 13 relieve asthma attack The oil from the seed is used to make perfume, food It is used to treat rheumatism, diabetes, arthritis It is used to treat skin diseases like dandruff, athlete foot, gingivitis. It is used to make tattoos on body It is used to prepare hair care and skin care products It is beneficial for mouth ulcer It is therapeutic and calming. It is used to treat epilepsy It is used to treat different kinds of cancer It is used as sedative It is used to treat hypertension It is used to cure malaria It is also used to cure diabetes mellitus It is used to treat thyphoid It is used to treat diabetes It is used as a sedative It is used to treat diabetes mellitus Used as folk remedies for asthma Used to treat hypertension Used in the production of beer. It is used for treatment of malaria. It is used in treatment of typhoid 35 Lapalapa Jatropha carcus Barbadus nut 36 Egberesi Gberesi Nauclea latifolia African peach 37 Ako-Ire. Funtumia Africana Funtumia 38 Ahun Alstonia boonei Stool wood 39 Iwere jeje Abrus precatorius Crab’s eyes 40 Agbalumo Chrysophyllum albidum African star apple 41 Gure Talinum Triangulae Water leaf 14 Hydrophyllacea e The plant is used as folk remedies of cancer It is used to treat It is used to treat dysentery and paralysis It is used to heal sores It can be eaten It is used in treating yellow fever It is also used in treating uncomplicated malaria It is used in curing jaundice It is used as simple gum It is used to treat asthma and other allergies. It is also used to treat other respiratory issues It is used in managing malaria It is used in treating fractures and dislocation It is used in treating jaundice The seeds can be used to make beads that are worn to scare off evil spirits It is used to treat fever It is an excellent source of vitamins, irons Four categories of usage; (food, medicine, firewood and timber) It is used to cure skin diseases. 42 Dokita igbo Enantia chlorantia African yellow wood It is used as an antimalarial drug It functions in antibacterial activities 43 Oruwo Morinda lucida Brimstone tree 44 Ewe Taba Nicotina alata Tobacco leaves 45 Akerejupon Sphenocentrum jollyanum 46 Kaju Anarcardium occidentale It is used as a remedy for diabetes In Nigeria and Gabon the root bark is used to dye textiles into scarlet red It is also a recognised remedy for fever It is used to treat skin diseases like scorpion bite It is used as a relaxant It is used to cure toothpain It is also used to cure headache It is used to treat rheumatism,Respirat ory,antispasmodic, expectorant and induce vomiting. It is used in diabetes management It is used as an emetic and purgative, especially when poisoning is suspected The roots are used as a sweetener The enlarged fruit can be eaten The seed is used to treat malaria, gingivitis It is used to make acid-proof cement and tiles It can be used as folk remedies of cancerous ulcer it is used tanning it is used in Cashew nut 15 Solanaceae 47 Milk flower 48 Hibiscus Small-leaf Moraceae milk flower tree Rosa-sinensis Rose mallow Malvaceae 49 Passiflora Incarnate Passion flower Passifloraceae 50 Helianthus annuus Sunflower Asteraceae 16 pharmaceuticals and as substitute for gum Arabic it is used in making drugs. The flower is used in form of decoratrion and latex to treat wound, diarrhea, emaciation, and skin disease. They are used to attract butterflies, bees, and humming birds. It is used in hair care. It is used in paper making. Hibiscus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some lepidople on species. The tea is used to treat kidney problem. Hibiscus tea also contains bioflavenoids which helps to prevent an increase in LDL cholesterol, which can increase the build up of plaque in the arteries. It is used to treat insomnia, anxiety, epilepsy, restlessness and other conditions of hyperactivity as well as high blood pressure. Sunflower oil can be used to run diesel engines when mixed with diesel in the tank. It is used as frying oil. It is suitable for culinary, dietary, and cosmetic use. 51 Euphorbia 52 Alamanda cathartica Spurge Euphorbiaceae Apocynaceae 53 Moringa Moringa olifera Horse Moringaceae Radish tree flower 54 Melongenia spp Solanum melongena Night shade It is used to treat earache and gonorrhea. Adults, chew the roots as an emetic to treat epilepsy, poisoning and snake bites. Ground roots are eaten in porridge to treat constipation. It is used to prevent infection of the uterus when placenta is expelled. Golden trumpet vine It is used to treat liver tumors, jaundice, splenomegaly, and malaria. Moringa flower tea on a first sign of the cold is used to boost their immune system. Moringa flowers are made into an infusion and used as an eye wash. It is used to treat inflammations, muscle diseases, tumors and enlargement of the spleen. Breastfeeding women take moringa tea to increase milk production. Women also take moringa tea for cramping and bloating connected to their menstrual cycle. The tea is also used to treat a sore throat. Solanaceae It is used in native pickets and curries in India. 17 55 Pride of Barbados caesalpini apulcherrima fabaceae 56 Cestrum nocturnum Queen of Solanaceae the night 57 Sida acuta Wire weed Malvaceae 58 Milk flower Apocynaceae Frangipani Apocynaceae 59 . Thevetia neriflora Plumera rubra 60 Flamboyant Delonix regia Flamboyant flower Caesalpinioidea 61 Ponna Ixora coccinea Jungle flame Rubiaceaea 18 A good source of vitamins A, B and C. A good source of Ca, P, Fe, Carbohydrates, and Fiber. For stomach ulcers. It is used to tone, balance, strengthen, and protect the liver. It is used to tone, balance, and strengthen the heart. It is used against malaria, as an antiflammatory, an antimicrobial against staphylococcus infections, asthma and is said to kill cancer cell. It is used to increase spiritual healing energies. It is used in the treatment for night sweats. It is used in treating epilepsy and other seizure disorders as well as headaches, and nervous imbalance It is used to treat malaria, fever, headache, dysentery, snake bite, asthma, diarrhea, skin disease and infected wounds. The flowers of the species is used in the cure of sores and made into soothing infusions It is used to cure stomach ache, swellings and malaria It is used to treat various ailments in 62 Ipomoea carnea Morning glory Convolvulaceae 63 euphobia milii crown of thorns Euphorbiaceae 64 aporocactus vanilla cactus cactaceae 65 Crotalaria Rattle pods Fabaceae the traditional system of medicine, the ayurveda, and in various folk medicines. The fruits when fully ripe are used as a dietary source. It is used for healing diseases and ritual to assist in divinations. It is used to treat gonorrhea preparation a flower decoction, roasted flowers mixed with beer is taken to treat gonorrhea. It is used to cure diuretic sedative and cardiac In large doses it produces gastric irritation, slight delirium, hallucinations and general mental confusion. It is said to increase the renal secretion It has a decided action on the heart and frequently gives prompt relief in functional or organic disease It is used to cure stomach ache, swellings and malaria. Ointments: these are semi-solid herbal preparation that vary in texture from greasy to thick paste, depending on materials used as base. The base may be petroleum jelly or Shea butter or bleached palm oil. The base act as carrier for preparation for external use and are not suppose to be absorbed through the skin. Also used for the treatment of nasal blockage. Suppositories: these are carriers of herbal preparation, especially powders meant for insertion into the orifices of the body e.g. ear, nose, rectum etc. Some laxative and abortifacients are packed as suppositories. The materials used must be firm enough 19 for effective insertion into the orifice and must be able to melt to release the herb it contains. Impresses: these are hot application of some herbal preparation aid absorption from the skin surface. The aim is to accelerate healing process. Poultices: the fresh plant part is marched or pounded into a paste that are either placed directly on the skin or placed in between gauze and tied to the affected skin. It is often used to treat wounds and hasten suppuration of boils. Liniments: they are preparations made for external uses in massaging to stimulate muscles and ligaments. Massaging helps absorption into skin to reach the affected part. Shea butter can be used as liniments or may carry some other herbal preparations for healing of painful joints and muscles. Herbal oil: these are essential oil used in phytotheraphy. To prepare, cut the herb finely, cover with oil in a container. Place in the sun or in a warm place for 2-3weeks, shaking the container daily. Filter the oil into a dark glass container and store away for use. Mostly use in massaging, as perfume, mixed into body cosmetics or drops into boiling water. Incense: The dry preparations of some plants with essential oil are burnt on coal fire to evaporate the oil which is released to the environment. Plants identified for sanctification are used this way. PREPARATION OF PLANT MATERIALS AND PREPARATION OF HERBARIUM SPECIMENS The role of a taxonomist in Ethnobotany includes scientific identification of plant materials being used by local vigilance. Implicitly taxonomy entrances identification nomenclature and classification. Classification: the arrangement of plants species into orderly categories called ‘Taxa’. A plant taxon is a group of plants whose similarities are greater than their differences. The taxa into which plants kingdom are arranged include: Division Class Order Family Genus Species Species is the lowest taxon which groups together plants that are able to interbreed. Identification: plant identification simply means keeping out an unknown. That is, comparing an unknown plant specimen with a plant of known identity or with the description of such a plant. The apparatus used in plant identification include; Herbarium specimen Botanical/Horticultural gardens or arboretum Illustrations (sketch, drawings/paintings, photograph) 20 Description or key. Herbarium specimens. Herbarium is the taxonomists flora calculations of dried preserved and well labelled specimens. Such dried specimens are used for the identification of unknown fresh sspecimens. Herbarium may be a collection of plant specimens within a locality or even a confinement. For examplSSe; Forestry Herbarium, Ibadan National Herbarium that contains specimens indigenously from Nigeria. Preparation of a Herbarium specimen involves; Collection of specimen Processing and drying of specimen Mounting carefully on hard paper Labelling Filling COLLECTION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS FOR HERBARIUM Therapeutic efficacy varies during different times or seasons of the year. The constituent and active principles vary quantitatively at different seasons of the year and the majority of plant materials are usually best collected during the dry season, when the herbs are at peak maturity and concentration. Dry as quickly as possible, away from bright sunlight, to preserve the ingredients and prevent oxidation. Roots and rhizomes: Best collected October to February, when the plants are more vigorously storing food in their underground organs. Leaves: The most opportune time is when the plant is about to bloom. Flowers: Buds are preferred, best collected in the morning after the morning dew has evaporated; flowers, just before or shortly after opening. Bark materials and stems: Generally, best gathered in dry season, the bark of any plant usually contains richer nutritive substances including the medicinal metabolites. Preferably, barks and stems should be removed only from fully grown plants. Do not remove all the bark or a band of surrounding bark. Fruits and seeds: Fully ripened fruits and mature seeds are preferred. Collection of pod fruits is done in the morning to avoid unnecessary opening up of the fruit wall to the detriment of losing the seeds. Turn the fleshy fruit frequently for even drying. Whole plant: When the whole plant is desired, it is advisable to harvest the plant at the time when the flowers are all in bloom. Old and withering plants are less effective when used as a source of drugs. OBJECTIVES OF PLANT SPECIMEN COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION Treasure of all times, a series of specimens an notes that will yield the maximum information about a particular plant. Exchange of specimens among botanical institutions and collectors t increase collection at a little cost and avoid repetition in the exploration. For identification of unknown specimen, when the curator of the herbarium will help to compare the specimens with collections until the specimen is identified. Specimen may be loaned by curators of a herbarium, corporate bodies or other taxonomists for a specified period of time. 21 Plant Press Is a pair of frame work measuring 80cm x 45cm. Each member is a lattice work of thin, light and strong pieces of wood or metal laid at right angles to each other. Between the frames are; The folders (made of old newsprint) Blatters and absorbent Ventilators made of corrugated cardboard sheets to provide air passage for drying. Having arranged the specimen in each folder to have maximum spread and piled up with ventilators, the press is then placed outside the sun on daily bases which will help to retain the naturalness of the specimens. Mounting of pressed specimen This is the process of attaching pressed/dried specimens on one side of a plane coloured hard standard sheet of size 41.25cm v 28.75cm. Materials needed include; Glass plate or any water resistant material of size 45 x 60cm. Adhesive (use materials that do not brittle with age). Brushes (4cm paint brush) used to apply adhesive on the mounting board. Forceps with spatulated tips used to pick up specimens from the mounting board. Procedure: moisten the brush and mounting board with water. Apply a thin coating paste of adhesive on the board. Place the specimen to be mounted on the paste, making sure that the entire lower surface is well coated. Carefully lift up the specimen with forceps and drop on the mounting sheet in the desired position, making sure that it does not come within 2.54cm (1inch) of the edge at any point. The seeds, fruits and extra flowers may be placed in envelopes and carefully posted on the same mounting sheet. Herbarium labels A herbarium label is 6 x100cm in dimension. It is pasted on the lower right hand corner of the mounting sheets. A label should have the following information: Banner headline i.e. name of the institution e..g Fountain University. Herbarium collection number Botanical name of the plant with author citation. E.g. Senna obtusifolia (L) Trusin and Barnety Family Name and order Locality of collection e.g. Isale osun. Habitat e.g. wetland, rocky highland. Altitude Description e.g. erect-stemmed, flowering in April-June etc Date of collection. Collector. Determined by. Having pasted the specimen and label, place a wax paper and board of convenient weight, leave overnight. Filing: this is the arrangement of specimens in herbarium. Often, all species in the same genus are arranged together in a genus cover. All general in each family are also arranged together in alphabetical order. Presentation: it involves treating with insecticides to avoid destruction in the cabinet. 22 EQUIPMENTS USE FOR COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANT. Field book: is use for keeping information on the collection of medicinal plant. Secateurs: they are small pairs of shears for pruning, and for cutting medicinal plants. Hand trowel: it is used for digging small holes for transplanting of medicinal plants Polythene bags: It is used for storing the medicinal plants in other to prevent rotting. 23