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LECTURE NOTES
Course : PST 202; ETHNOBOTANY (3 Credits /Compulsory)
Course Duration : 30hrs Teaching and 45hrs Practical
Lecturer: BELLO, Omolaran Bashir
Ph.D, M.Sc. (Ilorin), B.Sc. (Ibadan), OND (Computer Studies)
Course: PST 204 Plant Morphology (2 Credits /Compulsory)
Course Duration: 15hrs Teaching and 45hrs Practical
E-mail : [email protected],
obbello [email protected]
[email protected]
Office Location: Department of Biological Sciences
Consultation Hours; 2.30-4.00 pm Monday-Thursdays.
ETHNOBOTANY
Ethnobotany is defined by Martin (1995) as the study of people’s classification,
management and use of plant resource for food, medicine, construction materials, feeding the
livestock, fibres, gums, tannins, dye.
It seeks to study people’s intellectual property. Ethno (as in ‘ethnic’) refers to people,
culture, a culture’s collective body of beliefs, aesthetic, language, knowledge, and practice.
The main objectives of ethnobotanical studies are
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Keep proper record of people’s knowledge of the plants world that is taking
inventories of useful plants.
Applying the result of the studies to biodiversity conservation and community
development.
Ethnobotanical study is an interface between several disciplines, integrating methods drawn
from botany (especially taxonomy, pharmacologists), anthropology ecology, economics and
linguistic.
These are a few of the many branches of investigation that draw on cultural knowledge, and
that begin with the prefix ethno:
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Ethnobiology is the study of the relationships between people, the life forms
surrounding them, and the environment in which they live, in the past or present.
Ethnomycology is the study of folk knowledge of mushrooms and other fungi.
Ethnoscience is the study of the various ways the world is perceived and categorized
in different cultures. Ethnoscience regards the operational concepts in an indigenous
knowledge system, and is sometimes called folk science. Folk classification and
naming systems are also called folk taxonomy.
Ethnomedicine is the study of traditional medicines, which includes concepts of what
illness is and how healing occurs.
Ethnopharmacology is the study of the uses, effects and modes of actions of naturallyoccurring drug compounds. This is a key field that often explains the effectiveness of
herbal medicine, stimulants, analgesics, inebriants or psychoactive species.
Ethnomusicology is the study of the music of different cultures, and musical
instruments they make and use, which are often made of plant materials.
Ethnomusicology may include the study of dance.
Ethnoecology refers to a paradigm that is gaining ground in the early 21st century:
Understanding and documenting how peoples perceive and manage the ecosystem.
Botanists collect and identify plant specimens.
Pharmacognosists conduct plant analysis of the medicinal properties of plants
(phytochemistry) and possible anti-nutritional factors.
Ecologists describe the local classification of vegetation and land use
Anthropologists record ecological knowledge of the medicinal use of people over
ages.
Resource economists estimate the value of forest products.
Linguistics study local names of plants and their uses.
Zoologists study animal population that is dependent on the plant resources of the
environment.
HISTORY OF ETHNOBOANY.
The use of plants as medicines predates written human history. Many of the herbs and spices
used by humans to season food also yield useful medicinal compounds. The use of herbs and
spices in cuisine developed in part as a response to the threat of food-borne pathogens.
Studies show that in tropical climates where pathogens are the most abundant, recipes are the
most highly spiced.
Further, the spices with the most potent antimicrobial activity tend to be selected In
all cultures vegetables are spiced less than meat, presumably because they are more resistant
to spoilage. Angiosperms (flowering plants) were the original source of most plant medicines.
Many of the common weeds that populate human settlements, such as nettle, dandelion and
chickweed, have medicinal properties.
A large amount of archaeological evidence exists which indicates that humans were
using medicinal plants during the Paleolithic, approximately 60,000 years ago. (Furthermore,
other non-human primates are also known to ingest medicinal plants to treat illness)
In the written record, the study of herbs dates back over 5,000 years to the Sumerians,
who created clay tablets with lists of hundreds of medicinal plants (such as myrrh and
opium). In 1500 B.C., the Ancient Egyptians wrote the Ebers Papyrus, which contains
information on over 850 plant medicines, including garlic, juniper, cannabis, castor bean,
aloe, and mandrake.
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IMPORTANCEOF ETHNOBOTANY
Ethnobotany is very important because it traces the development of humanity, even
the most ancient of civilizations relied upon agriculture and the domestication of
certain forage, medical, fiber, culinary and plants used for dyes.
Ethnobotany also traces the development of modern Medicine and Herbalism, the
Paper Industry, The Chemical Industry, Rubber Industry also the Food Industry.
Every year new species are being discovered or are being reconsidered for modern
applications in all the above Industries and Sciences.
Ethnobotany is considered a new, yet vast science drawing upon the studies of
Botany, Anthropology, Phytochemistry, Sociology, Medicine as well as Agriculture.
PEOPLE AND PLANTS
All fresh is grass is the title of an inaugural lecture delivered by Prof. AA. Adegbola in Ife
1972. This indicates that directly and indirectly man depends on plant for his food and some
other needs. The plants used by man as food are grouped as follows:
STARCH PLANTS: These are sources of carbohydrate that supply energy needs of man.
They are:
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CEREALS: the grass family (poaceae) rice, maize, sorghum, millet etc
PSEUDOCEREALS: they are non-grass family whose grains are also consumed e.g.
grain amaranthus (Amaranthus caudatus) pigweed and buckwheat (Fagopyrum
esculentum).
ROOT AND TUBERS CROPS: e.g. sweet potato, Irish potato, yam, cassava, cocoyam.
They are the main sources of industrial and pharmaceutical starch.
SUGAR PLANTS: they produce sweet carbohydrates used to sweeten other foods and in the
production of alcohol e.g. sugarcane, sugar beet, palm juice, sugar sorghum. Other sweetners
that contain protein (non-carbohydrate sweeteners) are obtained from Dioscoreophyllum
cumminsi (ewe gbodogi), protein mullein, Thaumatococcus danielli (eweran) (Protein
thaumatin), Synsephlum dulcificum (agbayun-glycoprotein miraaculin).
OIL OLANTS: oil is important as food source because oil supplies an average of 38kj
energy. Oil is important in cooking (to modify taste and fragrance of food), they are sources
of vitamins A,D,E,&F, phospholipids and steroids. Apart from cooking oil is important in
lighting, burning, soap making, lubrication, painting, insecticides (neem seed oil), detergents,
biodiesel for agricultural machineries.
Sources of oil include fish oil, coconut, sunflower, rapeseed, groundnut, butter. The
camphor nut oil has been reported to be highly drying and can be used as a replacement of
linseed oil used to manufacture paints and varnish.
ESSENTIAL OLILS: they are volatile oils that will not have a grease spot when a droplet is
places on the filter paper. Being highly volatile they have distinctive odours and are used in
various industries which include; perfume and cosmetics, industries for products like soap,
ointments, powder etc.
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In pharmaceutical preparations because of their antiseptic properties and to
improve taste e.g. toothpaste.
 They are used to mask the odour of plastic, household spray, detergents etc.
They are used as solvents for technical purposes.
 They are used in food industry to produce lemonades, liqueurs, and
confectionary.
Some pant sources of essential oil are peel of lemon, lime and grape fruit, grass oils of
lemon grass, eucalyptus oil, lavender oil.
PROTEIN PROVIDING PLANTS: they are sources of plants protein. Examples are Vigna
unguiculata, Cayanuc cajan etc.
VEGETABLES: there are three the groups of vegetables based on their part of part
consumed. They are:
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Leaf vegetables: Amaranthus, Celosia, Bitter leaf. They are sources of
minerals, vitamins and proteins.
Fruit vegetables: they contain fewer nutrients but they stimulate appetite by
their taste and smell e.g. tomato, beetroot.
Tuber/root vegetable: e.g. onion, ginger, garlic and carrot. They serve as
spices.
FRUITS: they are plant products taken mostly for their refreshing or aromatic taste. The
fruits of such plants are flashy and juicy are mostly edible raw. They form the original food
of man and also attract animals in the wild. They play important role in nutrition and health.
The contents of fruits that are of their importance in healthcare delivery are:
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Organic acids: (malic acid, tartaric acid and citric acid): they act as mild
laxatives (encourage defecation) or diuretics (encourage urination). These are
the basis of fruit cures.
Pectins and Phenolic compounds: they regulate the pH in the intestine.
Normalize the intestinal flora and detoxify heavy metals.
The flavonoids: (e.g. hesperidin and naringin in citrus fruits): strengthens the
body tissues and regulate capillary permeability.
Vitamin A: e.g. mango, pawpaw.
Vitamin C: e.g. citrus, guava.
NUTS: they are fruits with dry shells e.g. coconut, walnuts. The health importance of nuts is
in their high nutritional value energy content and protein content for example:
% protein
% oil
% starch and sugar
Cashew nut
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45
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Almond
20
55
20
Walnut
15
65
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BEVERAGES AND STIMUALNTS: these are plants that contain chemical compounds that
gives physical and mental alertness, suppress hunger and thirst, breakdown psydic inhibitions
to produce fantastic dreams (hallucination) and sedate. Some are narcotics. EAXAMPLES of
plants includes tobacco, coffee, cacao, tea, Indian hemp, kolanut etc
SPICES: These are plants that have seasoning and condiment qualities. They are used to
improve the taste of food. They include mustard, capsicum pepper. Vanilla, ginger, thyme,
garlic etc
FIBRE PLANTS: these are plants from vegetables fibres and finest fabric that can be
detained for processing into textiles use for clothing and bed-linen, bags, and other packaging
materials, floor coverings, booms and binding materials. Plants materials included in the fibre
work are: hemp, cotton, kenaf, jute, agave, raffia. some less important fibre plants are: kapok,
hemp, urena, luffa.
ELASTOMERS: these are natural and synthetic polymers with rubber-elastic properties.
The most outstanding source of natural elastomer is rubber plant (Hevea brasillensis). The
natural elastomer has its uses in the production of tyres and inner tube because of ready
vulcanization. It is also used in making the protective wears against AIDS virus and other
STD diseases.
GUMS AND MUCILAGES: they are polymeric carbohydrates obtained from some plants
for use in food industries as stabilizers, emulsifiers and to increase viscosity. They are also
used as binders for drugs in pharmaceutical industries and as stay in textiles.
Sources in plants include: bark gums, endosperm of seeds for endosperm gum, seed coat for
seed coat gums and from mucilaginous covering for mucilage gums. Sources especially of
mucilage’s are algae and bacteria.
RESINS: just like gum, they are exudates produced as a result of wounding the bark of a
plant. They are exuded in liquid state, but many solidify in the air due to evaporation of
water. The volatile component of resin can be collected by distillation for use in perfumery.
The remains called resins are hard and used technically for lacquers, varnishes. Some plants
sources are Finus pinaster, Daniella oliveri etc.
TANNING MATERIALS: They are phenolic compounds obtained from the bark, wood,
roots and fruits of some plants for use in leather formation from animal skins and technically
to reduce the viscosity of drilling slurry from deep-drilling projects. Some plant source are
Rhizophora mucronata, Eucalyptus spp., Caesalpinia spinosa, Acacia decurens etc.
DYES and COLOURINGS: these are obtained from pigments of plants origin and are used
for beautification of body, for clothing, decoration of homes, and in colouring in foods and
drinks. They play major roles in the modern food and cosmetics industries. The colours
obtained from vegetable pigment include:
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Red colour from the arthrocyanins in the vacuole.
Yellow colour from the carotenoids in the plastids.
Green colour is obtained from chlorophyll in the plastids.
Blue from flowers of Chiloria ternatea or arthocyanus.. Te pigments obtained in the
plastid are useful in cosmetic preparation and those of vacuole are used in drinks and
confectionery industries. Dye is also used for cloth colouring e.g. indigo. Some plants
sources of dyes include: Bixa orellana, Lawsonia inermis, Morinda sp., Hibiscus etc.
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WAXES: they are fatty substances with a high melting point of 50-90oc obtained from
exudates of some plants e.g. jojoba whose seeds contain 47-62% wax. They are used to coat
fruits against desiccation, in cosmetics especially the production of lipstick, chew gum,
carbon paper, shoe creams, floor polish etc.
FORAGE & PASTURE PLANTS: they are plants used for the nourishment of the various
domestic animals. The forage plants may be trees, shrubs or creeping in habit. They are used
as fodder plants. Some plants used for human nutrition and livestock are maize, sorghum,
cassava, cowpea, breadfruit, banana/plantain. Some forage and fodder plants are Andropogon
gayanus, Andropogon tectorum, Axonopus compressus, Cynodon dactylon, Panicum
maximum, Centrosema pubescences, e.t.c.
GREEN MANURE PLANTS: these plans grown for incorporation into the soil to improve
the status of organic matter and various plant nutrients on decomposition. They may as well
be cut and used for mulching i.e. to cover the soil surface from direct sunlight and rain. Green
manuring and mulching increases earthworm activities in the soil to increase soil nutrients
status. The plants used for green manuring must be fast-growing, deep rooted and possibly
able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Examples include Mexican sunflower, Crotalaria spp.,
Sebania sesban, Senna detusifolia.
GROUND COVER PLANTS: these are deep-rooting, fast-growing and low nutrient
demanding plants growing within plantation crops like rubber, oil pal e.tc. They may be
creeping or erect shrubby plants. They function by protecting the soil from the impact of raindrops and the scorching effects of direct sunlight. They also prevent the growth of unwanted
weed flower like Imperata cylinderica.
Examples of ground cover plants are Mimosa invisa, Pueraria phaseoloides, Centrosema
pubescence, Sema sophera etc.
SOIL STABILZING PLANTS: as a result and deforestation, erosion occur to degrade the
soil. In the regions barriers are constructed with deep-rooted shrubs like prosopsis and Acacia
spp., to stabilize the loose sand. However in the humid region, the concern is to diminish the
effect of flowing water especially in the terraced slopes. Grasses which form a thick root
mass is used e.g. Vertiveria zizanioides, Cymtopogon citrates (lemon grass). Also banks and
hedges of ditches can be protected from collapse by growing creeping plants like Cynodon
dactylon, Passiflora foetida, Alternantheria brazilinensis etc.
WIND BREAKS PLANTS: these are plants grown to break the speeds of strong winds thus
protecting the sensitive crops like plantain/banana and cassava in the humid region and
reducing soil erosion by wind in the arid region. Plants used are: Neem (Azadirachita indica),
cashew (Anarcadium occidentale). They also provide firewood and are loped for charcoal
production. They are useful as avenue trees to enhance the aesthetics of the environment and
prevent storm from destroying the buildings. Examples of avenue plants are: Piuns spp.,
Eucalyptus spp., Thildergadia batteni, etc.
SHADE TREES: these are plants grown to nurse tropical tree/cash crops in the forest few
months/years of growth. Coca and kolanut are provided with ‘nurse plants’ on transplanting
primarily to reduce transpiration until the root system of the young seedlings are welldeveloped. Good shade plants must have high crown which is not too dense as to reduce the
sunlight more than 25%. Examples of such plants are Plantain, cassava, crotalaria spp, etc.
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FENCING PLANTS: these are plants used to mark boundaries of fields and to keep away
ravaging wild and domestic animals. Thorny plants and plants with bad-tasting or smelling
leaves are useful for this purpose. Examples are Jaropha spp., Croton spp., Euphortra
kamerunica, Thevetia nerifolia.
SOCIO-CULTURAL USES OF PLANTS
Plants are used for entertainment, divination, coronation, magic, body beautification etc
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For musical instrument and plant tools like Celtis zeniken, Afzelia Africana.
Societal sanitation of criminals e.g. Myrianthus antoreus
Coronation e.g. Newtouldia laevis
 Body beautification: Lawsonia inermis, Pterocampus osun.
MEDICINAL PLANTS
Sofowora (1982) describe a medicinal plant as any plant which contains a substance(s) that
can be used for therapeutic purposes or which are precursors for the synthesis of useful drugs.
Most of the medicinal plants are in the wild form where they are gathered. Due to the
urbanization and industrialization expansion of agricultural activities, most of the habitat of
these plants is being destroyed thus resulting in the threat of their population. This calls for
the domestication of these wild plant to prevent their extinction and sustain the supply most
especially yhose containing active substituent that cannot be synthesized by pharmacochemical industries and which cannot be substituted by other compounds.
STORAGE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
Many medicinal plants are seasonal, some not easily accessible, available only in deep forests
or mountain peaks. Such restrictions necessitate ways and devices to store them for future
use. Dirt and other foreign substances should be removed. If washing is needed, it should be
done quickly to minimize deterioration and loss of active substances. As a rule, all parts of
the plant collected should be dried as soon as possible to avoid unnecessary waste of the drug
materials through natural processes of denaturation, decay and fungal attacks. Some
commonly used storage methods used by the Chinese are as follows:
Sun-drying method: Spread the herbs over the dry beaches, patio or benches that are under
the direct scorch of the sun until the materials turn dry and brownish.
 Shade-drying method: Some plant materials are preferably dried under shade at
room temperature by wind action- because of heat-labile substances that they contain.
As such, free circulation of air is important. Drying processes should be shortened, if
higher drug contents are to be sought for. Floral and fruit materials should be dried by
this methods.
 Heat-drying method: Some materials may be placed over an oven and dried under
the intense heat released or under regulated soft heat. Plants that contain high sugar
and starch are best preserved by this method. In places where the rain falls throughout
the year, this method is strongly recommended.
 Other Special Methods: Succulent materials are usually washed first in boiling water
or steam-cooked in a container before actually drying it. For spiny and hairy
materials, remove the unwanted appendages. Some plant materials (e.g. succulent
materials) may require cutting or sectioning before drying. In general, the moisture
content of the dried plant materials should be less than 10% before storage. Moisture
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content higher than 10% usually leads to growth of microorganisms and pest
infestation with consequent drug deterioration.
The dried plant materials should be placed in plastic containers or tightly covered bottles;
brown coloured bottles are preferred as they minimize deterioration due to sunlight. Dry
charcoal (separated from the medicinal plant) may be placed inside the bottles to absorb
moisture. The storage place should be dry, well-ventilated, and spacious, lest fungi and
insects may invade rampantly. Drug materials (dry ones) after proper processing can be kept
in large open wooden shelves. The humidity of the storehouse should then be as low as
possible. Materials rich in volatile oils are advised to be kept in airtight containers.
Otherwise, their efficacy will decrease as time passes by. If all factors are favourable, the
prepared drugs can be used even after years of storage.
MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF PLANTS.
The medicinal properties of plants include;
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Abortifacient - substances that causes abortion.
Adaptogen - Substances that modulate hormones.
Alterative - blood cleanser that restores proper functioning of the body.
Anodyne – pain suppressants.
Anti-allergic – substances that reduces allergic reaction.
Anti-bacterial/virus/fungi – substances that prevents bacteria, virus and fungal
infections respectively.
Anti-depressant – relives depression.
Anti- haemorrhage – substances that halt bleeding.
Anti-hydrotic – drugs which checks ppersperation.
Anti-neoplastic – substabces that prevent abnormal growth.
Anti-pyretic - prevents fever.
Anti-rheumatic – relives rheumatic pains.
Anti-septic – substances that inhibits the growth of bacteria, fungi, and viruses e.g.
Neem aqueous extract.
Anti-spasmodic – substances that relives muscular spasm.
Anti-tussive – substances that prevents coughing.
Aperitive – stimulates appetite.
Astrigent – substances that shrink tissues and prevents secretion of fluids i.e unwanted
discharge.
Cattartic – drugs that purge the system; strong laxative.
Depurative – blood pufiying substances.
Diaphoretic –substances that increase perspiration.
Diuretic – substances that increase urination.
Emetic – substances that causes vomiting.
Emmenagogue – substances that bring on menstruation.
Emollient – substances that softens the tissues.
Eupeptic – substances that promote good digestion.
Expectorant – substances that promotes ejection of fluid from the lung and trachea
Haemostatic – substances that prevents bleeding and promotes clotting.
Laxative – substances that promotes defecation.
Nutritive – substances that promotes good nutrition.
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Crexigenic – substances that stimulates appetite.
Oxytocic – substances that promotes contraction of the uterus, aiding childbirth.
Relaxant – promotes relaxation (either muscular or psychological)
Spasmolytic – relives spasms or convulsions.
Stimulant – stimulates activity of the body.
Stomachic – stimulates activity of the body.
Suppuration – hasten pus production.
HERBAL MEDICINE PREPARATION
This aim at extraction of active ingredients contained in plant materials for use in the
management of ailments. They include among others the following:
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Decoction: putting the plant materials in cold water, boiling for 15-30 minutes, filter
the mixture and administer when cold enough.
Infusion: the process involves steeping the plant material (cut into pieces), into water,
either boiled or cold water and leave for some minutes/hours. Strain thee water for
oral administration or bathing. This is adopted for materials with readily dissolvable
active principles.
At time, the cold infusion is called MACERATE.
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Tincture: these are alcohol extraction of active principles in a medicinal plant.
Alcohol effects dissolution of relevant ingredients than water and at the same time act
as preventatives. Apart from alcohol, glycerine or vinegar may be used. Also, mixture
of alcohol and water at specific proportion may be used.
Pills: these are powders or herbal extracts incorporated in a suitable base such as
starch, glycerine, gum or mucilage.. The mixture is made into a ball, held together by
filler ingredients and may be coated.
Capsules: the dry powdered herbs are packed into gelatinous container that will
readily dissolve on contact with water. It helps in decent presentation of powdered
herbal preparation.
Cozenges: powdered herb is combined with sugar and mucilage. It is mostly used for
preparations for oral and respiratory complaints like tonsillitis (belubelu,
inflammation of the tonsil), mouth ulcers, sore throat and coughs.
Syrup: this is masking a fluid preparation that has unpleasant taste with a sweetener
like honey or sugar syrup. This is mostly used to prepare cough mixture or teething
mixture for children. Simple syrup base is prepared by pouring 500ml of boiling water
on 1:1kg of sugar. Heat and stir the mixture until the sugar dissolves and the mixture
stars to boil. It is used for decoction and infusion, dissolve 350g directly in 500ml of
the liquid preparation and heat gently until fully dissolve. It is advisable to use for
gargles and cough medicines only.
Oxymel: is a mixture of 5 parts of honey and 1 part vinegar into which the juice of
unpleasantly tasting herbs plant parts is mixed e.g. juice of garlic.
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COMMON MEDICINAL PLANTS AND THEIR USES.
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S/N
LOCAL NAME
BOTANICAL
NAME
Caesalpinia
bonduc
COMMON
NAME
1
Ewe Senyo
2
Ewe Kasan
USES
3
Ewe Ela
4
Ewe dongoyaro
5
Ewe Ogede
6
Ewe Sepeleba
7
Guava leaf
Psidium gaujava
8
Ewe Awoyoyo
Croton
penduliflorus
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Ewe Apoka
Cleistopholis
patens
10
Ewe Arunsansan
11
Ewe Iranje
Ageratum
conyzoides
Phyllanthus
reticulatus
12
Ewe Elu
Lonchocarpus
cyanescens
For making Kampala
13
Ewe Atori
Glypheea bevis
14
Ewe Okan
Cyclicodiscus
gabunensis
It is used to treat
measles. The stick or
stem is used as cane.
Used for treatment of
diabetes mellitus
It is used in treatment
of measles
Smilax
kraussiana
Angraecum
distichum
Azadirachita
indica
Ensetee gilletji
FAMILY
It is used in the
treatment of malaria
It is used in the
treatment of eczema
It is a progress leaf
It is used in the
treatment of
ringworm
Neem Tree
It is used in the
treatment of malaria
and typhoid
is used in the
treatment of malaria
and typhoid
It is used as
disinfectant and
treatment of skin
diseases
The spiritual people
use it to enhance
progress.
is used in the
treatment of
ringworm
It is used for bone
treatment
Spiritual people use
it to promote sales
and as pain reliever.
Greenheart
leaf
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15
Ewe Mango
Magnifera
indica
Mango Leaf
16
Ewe Atoo
Melissa
officinalis
Lemon
balm
17
Ewedu
18
Ewe Akoko
19
Ewe Abo
20
21
Ewe Afun
Ewe Efinrin
22
Ewe Ewuro
23
Ewe Ipin
24
25
26
27
Jute Mallow Corchorus
olitorius
Newbouldia
laevis
Anona
senegalensis
Chieftancy
leaf
It is used in
ceremonial activities.
It is used for curing
malaria
Ocimum
grattissinum
Scent leaf
Vernonia
amygdalina
BitterLeaf
It is used for stomach
pain and it is also
used for cooking.
Used in the treatment
of measles
It is used to cure pile
It is edible
Ficus
exasperata
Ewe Ogbo
Parquetina
nigrescens
Ewe
Akintola Eupatorium
Taku
odoretum
Oganwo
Khaya
grandifoliola
Apikan
It is used for fever
and diarrhoea.
It is used in clearing
digestion
It is used as an antioxidant
They are used in antifungi and antibacteria activities
It is used for rubbing
the body like balm
for body pains and it
is also used for body
scent.
It is used in cooking
Datura metel
Mahogany
Devil’s
Trumpet
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It is used as a blood
replenisher
It is used to treat
wounds.
It is used to treat
stomach pain
In Uganda, the bark
is used as fish
poison.
It is used to treat skin
diseases.
It is used as analgesic
It is used as
anticancer
Used as
antirheumatism
If mixed with
cannabis used to
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Ewe Igbale
Moringa olifera
Moringa
drumstick
29
Laali
Lawsonia
inermis
Henna
30
Olowojeja
Boerhavia
diffusa
Punarnava
31
Kasia
Senna siamea
Senna
32
Iru ekun
Cyathula
achyranthoides
33
Ejiarin-weere
Momordica
charantia
34
Ewe abafin
Piliostigma
reticulatum
Bitter
lemon
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relieve asthma attack
The oil from the seed
is used to make
perfume, food
It is used to treat
rheumatism,
diabetes, arthritis
It is used to treat skin
diseases like
dandruff, athlete foot,
gingivitis.
It is used to make
tattoos on body
It is used to prepare
hair care and skin
care products
It is beneficial for
mouth ulcer
It is therapeutic and
calming.
It is used to treat
epilepsy
It is used to treat
different kinds of
cancer
It is used as sedative
It is used to treat
hypertension
It is used to cure
malaria
It is also used to cure
diabetes mellitus
It is used to treat
thyphoid
It is used to treat
diabetes
It is used as a
sedative
It is used to treat
diabetes mellitus
Used as folk
remedies for asthma
Used to treat
hypertension
Used in the
production of beer.
It is used for
treatment of malaria.
It is used in treatment
of typhoid
35
Lapalapa
Jatropha carcus
Barbadus
nut
36
Egberesi Gberesi
Nauclea latifolia African
peach
37
Ako-Ire.
Funtumia
Africana
Funtumia
38
Ahun
Alstonia boonei
Stool wood
39
Iwere jeje
Abrus
precatorius
Crab’s eyes
40
Agbalumo
Chrysophyllum
albidum
African star
apple
41
Gure
Talinum
Triangulae
Water leaf
14
Hydrophyllacea
e
The plant is used as
folk remedies of
cancer
It is used to treat
It is used to treat
dysentery and
paralysis
It is used to heal
sores
It can be eaten
It is used in treating
yellow fever
It is also used in
treating
uncomplicated
malaria
It is used in curing
jaundice
It is used as simple
gum
It is used to treat
asthma and other
allergies.
It is also used to treat
other respiratory
issues
It is used in
managing malaria
It is used in treating
fractures and
dislocation
It is used in treating
jaundice
The seeds can be
used to make beads
that are worn to scare
off evil spirits
It is used to treat
fever
It is an excellent
source of vitamins,
irons
Four categories of
usage; (food,
medicine, firewood
and timber)
It is used to cure skin
diseases.
42
Dokita igbo
Enantia
chlorantia
African
yellow
wood
It is used as an
antimalarial drug
It functions in
antibacterial
activities
43
Oruwo
Morinda lucida
Brimstone
tree
44
Ewe Taba
Nicotina alata
Tobacco
leaves
45
Akerejupon
Sphenocentrum
jollyanum
46
Kaju
Anarcardium
occidentale
It is used as a remedy
for diabetes
In Nigeria and Gabon
the root bark is used
to dye textiles into
scarlet red
It is also a recognised
remedy for fever
It is used to treat skin
diseases like scorpion
bite
It is used as a
relaxant
It is used to cure
toothpain
It is also used to cure
headache
It is used to treat
rheumatism,Respirat
ory,antispasmodic,
expectorant and
induce vomiting.
It is used in diabetes
management
It is used as an
emetic and purgative,
especially when
poisoning is
suspected
The roots are used as
a sweetener
The enlarged fruit
can be eaten
The seed is used to
treat malaria,
gingivitis
It is used to make
acid-proof cement
and tiles
It can be used as folk
remedies of
cancerous ulcer
it is used tanning
it is used in
Cashew nut
15
Solanaceae
47
Milk flower
48
Hibiscus
Small-leaf
Moraceae
milk flower
tree
Rosa-sinensis
Rose
mallow
Malvaceae
49
Passiflora
Incarnate
Passion
flower
Passifloraceae
50
Helianthus
annuus
Sunflower
Asteraceae
16
pharmaceuticals and
as substitute for gum
Arabic
it is used in making
drugs.
The flower is used in
form of decoratrion
and latex to treat
wound, diarrhea,
emaciation, and skin
disease.
They are used to
attract butterflies,
bees, and humming
birds.
It is used in hair care.
It is used in paper
making.
Hibiscus species are
used as food plants
by the larvae of some
lepidople on species.
The tea is used to
treat kidney problem.
Hibiscus tea also
contains
bioflavenoids which
helps to prevent an
increase in LDL
cholesterol, which
can increase the build
up of plaque in the
arteries.
It is used to treat
insomnia, anxiety,
epilepsy, restlessness
and other conditions
of hyperactivity as
well as high blood
pressure.
Sunflower oil can be
used to run diesel
engines when mixed
with diesel in the
tank.
It is used as frying
oil.
It is suitable for
culinary, dietary, and
cosmetic use.
51
Euphorbia
52
Alamanda
cathartica
Spurge
Euphorbiaceae
Apocynaceae
53
Moringa
Moringa olifera
Horse
Moringaceae
Radish tree
flower
54
Melongenia spp
Solanum
melongena
Night shade
It is used to treat
earache and
gonorrhea.
Adults, chew the
roots as an emetic to
treat epilepsy,
poisoning and snake
bites.
Ground roots are
eaten in porridge to
treat constipation.
It is used to prevent
infection of the
uterus when placenta
is expelled.
Golden trumpet vine
It is used to treat
liver tumors,
jaundice,
splenomegaly, and
malaria.
Moringa flower tea
on a first sign of the
cold is used to boost
their immune system.
Moringa flowers are
made into an infusion
and used as an eye
wash.
It is used to treat
inflammations,
muscle diseases,
tumors and
enlargement of the
spleen.
Breastfeeding
women take moringa
tea to increase milk
production.
Women also take
moringa tea for
cramping and
bloating connected to
their menstrual cycle.
The tea is also used
to treat a sore throat.
Solanaceae
It is used in native
pickets and curries in
India.
17
55
Pride of Barbados
caesalpini
apulcherrima
fabaceae
56
Cestrum
nocturnum
Queen
of Solanaceae
the night
57
Sida acuta
Wire weed
Malvaceae
58
Milk flower
Apocynaceae
Frangipani
Apocynaceae
59
.
Thevetia
neriflora
Plumera rubra
60
Flamboyant
Delonix regia
Flamboyant
flower
Caesalpinioidea
61
Ponna
Ixora coccinea
Jungle
flame
Rubiaceaea
18
A good source of
vitamins A, B and C.
A good source of Ca,
P, Fe, Carbohydrates,
and Fiber.
For stomach ulcers.
It is used to tone,
balance, strengthen,
and protect the liver.
It is used to tone,
balance, and
strengthen the heart.
It is used against
malaria, as an antiflammatory, an
antimicrobial against
staphylococcus
infections, asthma
and is said to kill
cancer cell.
It is used to increase
spiritual healing
energies.
It is used in the
treatment for night
sweats.
It is used in treating
epilepsy and other
seizure disorders as
well as headaches,
and nervous
imbalance
It is used to treat
malaria, fever,
headache, dysentery,
snake bite, asthma,
diarrhea, skin disease
and infected wounds.
The flowers of the
species is used in the
cure of sores and
made into soothing
infusions
It is used to cure
stomach ache,
swellings and malaria
It is used to treat
various ailments in
62
Ipomoea carnea
Morning
glory
Convolvulaceae
63
euphobia milii
crown of
thorns
Euphorbiaceae
64
aporocactus
vanilla
cactus
cactaceae
65
Crotalaria
Rattle pods
Fabaceae


the traditional system
of medicine, the
ayurveda, and in
various folk
medicines. The fruits
when fully ripe are
used as a dietary
source.
It is used for healing
diseases and ritual to
assist in divinations.
It is used to treat
gonorrhea
preparation a flower
decoction, roasted
flowers mixed with
beer is taken to treat
gonorrhea.
It is used to cure
diuretic sedative and
cardiac
In large doses it
produces gastric
irritation, slight
delirium,
hallucinations and
general mental
confusion.
It is said to increase
the renal secretion
It has a decided
action on the heart
and frequently gives
prompt relief in
functional or organic
disease
It is used to cure
stomach ache,
swellings and
malaria.
Ointments: these are semi-solid herbal preparation that vary in texture from greasy to
thick paste, depending on materials used as base. The base may be petroleum jelly or
Shea butter or bleached palm oil. The base act as carrier for preparation for external
use and are not suppose to be absorbed through the skin. Also used for the treatment
of nasal blockage.
Suppositories: these are carriers of herbal preparation, especially powders meant for
insertion into the orifices of the body e.g. ear, nose, rectum etc. Some laxative and
abortifacients are packed as suppositories. The materials used must be firm enough
19





for effective insertion into the orifice and must be able to melt to release the herb it
contains.
Impresses: these are hot application of some herbal preparation aid absorption from
the skin surface. The aim is to accelerate healing process.
Poultices: the fresh plant part is marched or pounded into a paste that are either
placed directly on the skin or placed in between gauze and tied to the affected skin. It
is often used to treat wounds and hasten suppuration of boils.
Liniments: they are preparations made for external uses in massaging to stimulate
muscles and ligaments. Massaging helps absorption into skin to reach the affected
part. Shea butter can be used as liniments or may carry some other herbal preparations
for healing of painful joints and muscles.
Herbal oil: these are essential oil used in phytotheraphy. To prepare, cut the herb
finely, cover with oil in a container. Place in the sun or in a warm place for 2-3weeks,
shaking the container daily. Filter the oil into a dark glass container and store away
for use. Mostly use in massaging, as perfume, mixed into body cosmetics or drops
into boiling water.
Incense: The dry preparations of some plants with essential oil are burnt on coal fire
to evaporate the oil which is released to the environment. Plants identified for
sanctification are used this way.
PREPARATION OF PLANT MATERIALS AND PREPARATION OF HERBARIUM
SPECIMENS
The role of a taxonomist in Ethnobotany includes scientific identification of plant materials
being used by local vigilance. Implicitly taxonomy entrances identification nomenclature and
classification.
Classification: the arrangement of plants species into orderly categories called ‘Taxa’. A
plant taxon is a group of plants whose similarities are greater than their differences. The taxa
into which plants kingdom are arranged include:






Division
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Species is the lowest taxon which groups together plants that are able to interbreed.
Identification: plant identification simply means keeping out an unknown. That is,
comparing an unknown plant specimen with a plant of known identity or with the description
of such a plant.
The apparatus used in plant identification include;



Herbarium specimen
Botanical/Horticultural gardens or arboretum
Illustrations (sketch, drawings/paintings, photograph)
20

Description or key.
Herbarium specimens.
Herbarium is the taxonomists flora calculations of dried preserved and well labelled
specimens. Such dried specimens are used for the identification of unknown fresh
sspecimens. Herbarium may be a collection of plant specimens within a locality or even a
confinement. For examplSSe; Forestry Herbarium, Ibadan National Herbarium that contains
specimens indigenously from Nigeria.
Preparation of a Herbarium specimen involves;





Collection of specimen
Processing and drying of specimen
Mounting carefully on hard paper
Labelling
Filling
COLLECTION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS FOR HERBARIUM
Therapeutic efficacy varies during different times or seasons of the year. The constituent and
active principles vary quantitatively at different seasons of the year and the majority of plant
materials are usually best collected during the dry season, when the herbs are at peak maturity
and concentration. Dry as quickly as possible, away from bright sunlight, to preserve the
ingredients and prevent oxidation.






Roots and rhizomes: Best collected October to February, when the plants are more
vigorously storing food in their underground organs.
Leaves: The most opportune time is when the plant is about to bloom.
Flowers: Buds are preferred, best collected in the morning after the morning dew has
evaporated; flowers, just before or shortly after opening.
Bark materials and stems: Generally, best gathered in dry season, the bark of any
plant usually contains richer nutritive substances including the medicinal metabolites.
Preferably, barks and stems should be removed only from fully grown plants. Do not
remove all the bark or a band of surrounding bark.
Fruits and seeds: Fully ripened fruits and mature seeds are preferred. Collection of
pod fruits is done in the morning to avoid unnecessary opening up of the fruit wall to
the detriment of losing the seeds. Turn the fleshy fruit frequently for even drying.
Whole plant: When the whole plant is desired, it is advisable to harvest the plant at
the time when the flowers are all in bloom. Old and withering plants are less effective
when used as a source of drugs.
OBJECTIVES OF PLANT SPECIMEN COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION
 Treasure of all times, a series of specimens an notes that will yield the maximum
information about a particular plant.
 Exchange of specimens among botanical institutions and collectors t increase
collection at a little cost and avoid repetition in the exploration.
 For identification of unknown specimen, when the curator of the herbarium will help
to compare the specimens with collections until the specimen is identified.
 Specimen may be loaned by curators of a herbarium, corporate bodies or other
taxonomists for a specified period of time.
21
Plant Press
Is a pair of frame work measuring 80cm x 45cm. Each member is a lattice work of thin, light
and strong pieces of wood or metal laid at right angles to each other. Between the frames are;
 The folders (made of old newsprint)
 Blatters and absorbent
 Ventilators made of corrugated cardboard sheets to provide air passage for drying.
Having arranged the specimen in each folder to have maximum spread and piled up with
ventilators, the press is then placed outside the sun on daily bases which will help to retain
the naturalness of the specimens.
Mounting of pressed specimen
This is the process of attaching pressed/dried specimens on one side of a plane coloured hard
standard sheet of size 41.25cm v 28.75cm. Materials needed include;
 Glass plate or any water resistant material of size 45 x 60cm.
 Adhesive (use materials that do not brittle with age).
 Brushes (4cm paint brush) used to apply adhesive on the mounting board.
 Forceps with spatulated tips used to pick up specimens from the mounting board.
Procedure: moisten the brush and mounting board with water. Apply a thin coating paste of
adhesive on the board. Place the specimen to be mounted on the paste, making sure that the
entire lower surface is well coated. Carefully lift up the specimen with forceps and drop on
the mounting sheet in the desired position, making sure that it does not come within 2.54cm
(1inch) of the edge at any point. The seeds, fruits and extra flowers may be placed in
envelopes and carefully posted on the same mounting sheet.
Herbarium labels
A herbarium label is 6 x100cm in dimension. It is pasted on the lower right hand corner of
the mounting sheets. A label should have the following information:
 Banner headline i.e. name of the institution e..g Fountain University.
 Herbarium collection number
 Botanical name of the plant with author citation. E.g. Senna obtusifolia (L) Trusin and
Barnety
 Family Name and order
 Locality of collection e.g. Isale osun.
 Habitat e.g. wetland, rocky highland.
 Altitude
 Description e.g. erect-stemmed, flowering in April-June etc
 Date of collection.
 Collector.
 Determined by.
Having pasted the specimen and label, place a wax paper and board of convenient weight,
leave overnight.
Filing: this is the arrangement of specimens in herbarium. Often, all species in the same
genus are arranged together in a genus cover. All general in each family are also arranged
together in alphabetical order.
Presentation: it involves treating with insecticides to avoid destruction in the cabinet.
22
EQUIPMENTS USE FOR COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF MEDICINAL
PLANT.
 Field book: is use for keeping information on the collection of medicinal plant.
 Secateurs: they are small pairs of shears for pruning, and for cutting medicinal plants.
 Hand trowel: it is used for digging small holes for transplanting of medicinal plants
 Polythene bags: It is used for storing the medicinal plants in other to prevent rotting.
23