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Consequences of World War II
Wars have social, political, and economic consequences.
Social Postwar Outcomes:
Europe lay in ruins. Citizens of the Allied and Axis Powers saw their
cities destroyed and families torn apart.
Political Postwar Outcomes:
The end of World War II found Soviet forces occupying most
Eastern and Central Europe and the eastern portion of
Germany.
Germany was partitioned into East Germany and West
Germany.
West Germany became democratic and resumed selfgovernment after a few years of American, British, and
French occupation.
East Germany remained under the domination of the Soviet
Union and did not adopt democratic institutions.
Following its defeat, Japan was occupied by American forces. It soon adopted a
democratic form of government, and became a strong ally of the United States.
Economic postwar Outcomes:
Europe lay in ruins and the United States launched the Marshall Plan which
provided massive financial aid to rebuild European economies and prevent the
spread of Communism. Communism is a form of government which supports
Marxist ideology.
Communism Has Ten Essential Planks:
Abolition of Private Property.
Heavy Progressive Income Tax.
Abolition of Rights of Inheritance.
Confiscation of Property Rights.
Central Bank.
Government Ownership of Communication and Transportation.
Government ownership of Factories and Agriculture.
Government Control of Labor.
Corporate Farms and Regional Planning.
Government Control of Education.
October 1945: The United Nations was formed near the
end of World War II to create a body for the nations of the
world to try to prevent future global wars.
The Cold War Begins
The Cold War set the framework for global politics for 45 years after the end of World
War II. It also influenced American domestic policies, the conduct of foreign affairs, and
the role of the government in the economy after 1945.
The Cold War was a competition (Mostly between the U.S. and The Soviet Union)
between two very different ways of organizing government, society, and economy. There
were never any direct fights between the United States and the Soviet Union, but some
wars were fought indirectly. The lack of fighting is what this made it a Cold War.
The Yalta Conference was the wartime meeting in
February of 1945. The United States, the United
Kingdom, and the Soviet Union (President Franklin D.
Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Premier
Joseph Stalin) met for the purpose of discussing Europe's
postwar reorganization. The Yalta Conference is sometimes considered to be the start of
the Cold War. Eastern Europe was “given” to the Stalin to be under Soviet control.
The United States led western nations’ belief in democracy, individual freedom, and a
market economy.
The Soviet Union believed in totalitarian states and socialism (communists).
Origins of the Cold War:
The Cold War was an era of coexistence between the western democratic nations, the
Soviet Union, and the Soviet satellite countries after World War II. A satellite country is
a country that follows a superpower’s influence.
The Cold War lasted from the end of World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union
in 1989.
The U.S. and the Soviet Union represented different fundamental values. The U.S.
represented democratic political institutions and a generally free market economic system
(few government interventions). A market economy is an economic system in which
individuals and businesses operate with minimal government control. The economy is
mostly controlled by supply and demand of goods and
services.
The Soviet Union was a totalitarian government with a
communist (socialist) economic system (total government
interventions).
Cold War under Truman and Eisenhower
U.S. Response to Communist Expansion under President Truman (1945-1953):
The Truman Doctrine of “containment of communism” was a guiding
principle of American foreign policy throughout the Cold War, not to
roll it back, but to keep it from spreading and to resist communist
aggression in other nations. The idea of communism is very
appealing to countries that were poor and/or destroyed. Containment
was the U.S. policy of preventing the spread of communism.
The Truman Doctrine was a proclamation by Harry S. Truman,
President of the United States on March 12, 1947. It stated that the
U.S. would support the Kingdom of Greece and Turkey economically and militarily to
prevent their falling under Soviet control.
Truman called upon the U.S. to "support free peoples who are
resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by
outside pressures."
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed
in 1949 as a defensive alliance among the U.S. and Western
European countries to prevent a Soviet invasion of Western
Europe.
Soviet allies in Eastern Europe formed the
Warsaw Pact and for nearly fifty years,
both sides maintained large military forces
facing each other in Europe.
The communist takeover of China shortly
after World War II increased American fears of
communist domination of most of the world.
The U.S. government’s anti-communist strategy of
containment in Asia led to America’s involvement in
the Korean War and Vietnam War.
This grew into the concept of the domino effect. The domino effect is the concept that if
one country in Asia falls to communism, their neighbors will follow.
Korean War (The Cold War Heats Up)
The Korean War lasted from June 25, 1950 until the
armistice signed on July 27, 1953. The conflict arose from
the attempts of the two Korean powers to re-unify Korea
under their respective governments. The period
immediately before the war was marked by escalating
border conflicts at the 38th Parallel. On June 25, 1950,
North Korea (Communist) invaded South Korea
(Democratic). The United Nations, led by
the United States (General Douglas
MacArthur) mobilized to defend South
Korea. American military forces led a
counterattack that drove deep into North
Korea itself.
Communist Chinese forces came into the war on the side of North Korea
and the war threatened to widen, but eventually ended in a stalemate with South Korea free
of communist occupation. A stalemate is when neither opposing side can act effectively
or gain a victory. American involvement in the Korean War in the early 1950’s reflected
the American policy of containment of Communism. Over 36,000 American soldiers died
in this war.
U.S. response to Communist Expansion under President Eisenhower (1953-1961):
After the Soviet Union matched the U.S. in nuclear weaponry in the
1950’s, the threat of a nuclear war that would destroy both
countries was ever-present throughout the Cold War.
America, under President Eisenhower, adopted a policy of
“massive retaliation” to deter any nuclear strike by the Soviets.
This said that any attack on the United States would result in what
would most likely be a nuclear strike.
Nuclear weapons advanced greatly in the 1950’s. The advancement of the Hydrogen
bomb and missile technology on both sides increased fear of destruction. The concept of
mutually assured destruction kept both sides from using nuclear bombs.
Impact of the Cold War at Home
The fear of communism and the threat of nuclear war affected
American life throughout the Cold War.
During the 1950’s and 1960’s, American schools regularly held
drills to train students what to do in case of nuclear attack, and
American citizens were urged by the government to build bomb
shelters in their own basements.
The Cold War was a large part of our culture in the United States for decades. Effects of
the Cold War influence our culture and foreign policy even
today.
The convictions of Alger Hiss (1948), and Julius and Ethel
Rosenberg (1951) for spying for the Soviet Union, and the
construction of nuclear weapons by the Soviets using technical
secrets obtained through spying, increased domestic fears of
communism. The Rosenbergs were executed for their crimes.
Senator Joseph McCarthy played on American fears of communism by
recklessly accusing officials and citizens of being
communists based on flimsy or no evidence. This
led to the coining of the term McCarthyism, or the
making of false accusations based on rumor or guilt
by association. This was called the Red Scare.
The Cold War made foreign policy a major issue in every
presidential election during this period.
The heavy military expenditures throughout the Cold War benefited
Virginia’s economy proportionately more than any other state, especially in
Hampton Roads, home to several large naval and air bases, and Northern
Virginia, home to the Pentagon and numerous private companies that
contracted with the military.
A strong military was the key to America’s victory over the Soviet Union in
the Cold War. Millions of Americans served in the military during the Cold
War. Their service was often at great personal and family
sacrifice, yet they did their duty.
U.S. Response to Communist Expansion under President Kennedy (1961-1963):
President Kennedy, a WWII veteran, was assassinated in 1963 in
Dallas, Texas, in an event that shook the nation’s confidence and
began a period of internal strife and divisiveness, especially over U.S.
involvement in Vietnam.
In President John F. Kennedy’s inaugural address, he pledged that the
United States would “pay and price, bear any burden, meet and
hardship, support any friend, oppose and foe, in order to assure the
survival of the success of liberty.” In the same address, he also said,
“Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for
your country.”
During the Kennedy Years:
Fidel Castro led a communist revolution that took over Cuba in the late 1950’s. Many
Cubans fled to Florida. In April, 1961, there was an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the
government (run by Fidel Castro) in Cuba (who was allied with the
Soviet Union). The U.S. trained Cuban exiles to complete this operation
which became known as the Bay of Pigs. The invasion was a failure
and an embarrassment to the Kennedy Administration. The Cuban
Missile Crisis was in 1962 when it was discovered that missile bases
were being built. The United States negotiated with the Soviet Union in
order to prevent nuclear missiles from being so close to the U.S.
The Berlin Wall was a barrier constructed by East Germany on 13 August 1961 that
completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin. It
served as a symbol for the Cold War as well as a symbol for the oppression of the people
in communist nations.
U.S. Response to Communist Expansion under President Johnson (1963-1969):
President Johnson was Kennedy’s Vice-President until Kennedy was
killed. The American buildup in Vietnam began under President John
Kennedy.
The Great Society program, with its name coined from one of Johnson's
speeches, became Johnson's agenda for Congress in January 1965: aid to
education, attack on disease, Medicare, Medicaid, urban renewal,
beautification, conservation, development of depressed regions, a widescale fight against poverty, control and prevention of crime, and removal
of obstacles to the right to vote. Congress, at times augmenting or amending, enacted most
of Johnson's recommendations.
The Vietnam War
After Kennedy’s assassination in 1963, the buildup was intensified under President
Lyndon Johnson. Under the advice of Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara the number
of troops sent to Vietnam intensified greatly.
Johnson did not seek reelection in the 1968 election. He focused
most of his time trying to resolve the Vietnam situation.
America’s involvement in the Vietnam War also reflected the
Cold War policy of containment of communism. Beginning in
the 1950’s when the Vietnamese soldiers defeated their colonial
master, France, in 1954, the United States began to send
“advisors” to Vietnam to stop communism. Continuing into the
early 1960’s, the communist government of North Vietnam
attempted to install through force a communist government in
South Vietnam. The U.S. helped South Vietnam resist.
In the Vietnam War, fighting to stop the spread of communism
led to the deaths of thousands of U.S. and Vietnamese soldiers.
Vietnam was under French rule for many years. After World War
II, the French were unable to maintain their former colony.
Vietnam was split into North Vietnam and South Vietnam.
North Vietnam was supported by the Soviet Union. South
Vietnam resisted communism and was later supported by the United States. Groups that
fought for communism in both North and South Vietnam were called
the Viet Cong (led by Ho Chi Minh).
The North Vietnamese Army used Guerilla warfare. Guerrilla warfare
is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of
combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes, raids, etc.) to combat a larger
and less mobile formal army. The guerrilla army uses ambush (stealth
and surprise) and mobility (draw enemy forces to terrain unsuited to
them) in attacking vulnerable targets in enemy territory.
The scale of combat in Vietnam grew larger over the course of the 1960’s. The Vietnam
War was fought many ways, ranging from small group guerrilla warfare to bombing
strikes. Helicopters and jets were utilized in many cases.
Impact of the Vietnam War on Americans at Home:
The Vietnam War demonstrated the power of American public opinion in
reversing foreign policy. It tested the democratic system to its limits, left scars
on American society that have not yet been erased, and made many Americans
deeply skeptical of future military or even peacekeeping interventions.
Hawks: Individuals who advocated involvement in the Vietnam War and the
use of force to defeat communists.
Doves: Individuals who did not want America involved in the Vietnam War
and advocated peace and the withdrawal of Americans troops.
The Country became bitterly divided. While there was support for the
American military and conduct of the war among many Americans, others
opposed the war and active opposition to the war mounted, especially on the
college campuses.
Unlike the veterans of World War II, who returned to a grateful nation, Vietnam veterans
returned often to face indifference or outright hostility from some who opposed war. It
was not until several years after the end of the war that the wounds of the war began to
heal in America, and Vietnam veterans were recognized and honored for their service.
U.S. Response to Communist Expansion under President Nixon (1969-1974):
After Johnson declined to seek reelection, President Nixon was elected on a pledge to
bring the Vietnam War to an honorable end. He instituted a policy of “Vietnamization,”
withdrawing American troops and replacing them with South
Vietnamese.
“Vietnamization” failed when South Vietnamese troops proved unable to
resist invasion by the Soviet-supplied North Vietnamese Army. U.S.
troops eventually withdrew from Vietnam. South Vietnam was invaded
and fell to communism. Our objective was not met.
Rather than strong allies, the communist nations of China and the Soviet Union eventually
became rivals for territory and diplomatic influence, a split which American foreign policy
under President Nixon in the 1970’s exploited.
President Nixon was forced from office by the Watergate scandal. In the Watergate
scandal, Nixon was involved with men breaking into the offices of the Democratic
National Committee in 1972. The men were ordered to tap the phones (spy). Nixon, who
initially denied involvement, was later implemented. He resigned before he could be
impeached.
Internal Problems of the Soviet Union:
Both internal and external pressures led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. The Soviet
Union spent an increasing amount of money and resources to compete with the U.S. There
were great amounts of economic inefficiencies, causing budget and management problems.
Fast paced reforms in the Soviet Union contributed to the instabilities.
Rising Nationalism in Soviet Republics led to Soviet satellites wanting to break away from
Soviet control.
Mikhail Gorbachev became the premier/leader of the U.S.S.R. in 1985.
Gorbachev brought about 2 reforms:
“Glasnost”: It encouraged people to discuss public issues in order to
do away with communist corruption. Before this, many issues in the
Soviet Union were closed off.
“Perestroika”: It was an economic restructuring that encouraged
individual enterprise to stimulate the Soviet economy.
Gorbachev’s policies loosened tensions between the Soviet Union and
the United States. This relaxation is called Détente. Gorbachev is
credited by many as the man who helped bring an end to the Cold War.
Role of President Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) in the Collapse of the Soviet Union:
Ronald Reagan challenged moral legitimacy of the
Soviet Union. He referred to the Soviet Union as an
“Evil Empire.” He gave a speech at the Berlin Wall
saying “Mr. Gorbachev,
tear down this wall.”
The communists started
building the Berlin Wall in
1961. It was built to prevent people in East (communist) Berlin
from escaping into West Berlin (capitalist/free). The Berlin
Wall, for many, was a symbol of Soviet oppression.
Reagan increased U.S. military and economic pressure on the Soviet Union. Reagan urged
Congress to appropriate money for the Strategic Defense Initiative (also referred to as
“Star Wars”). It was a computerized system designed to destroy missiles before they
could reach the U.S.
The Post-Cold War Era (The Modern Era)
With the end of the Cold War, the United States changed its goals and policies.
Involvement in conflicts in other areas of the world has been and integral part of United
States foreign policy in the modern era.
Goals of the United States in the Modern Era:
1) Foreign Aid
2) Humanitarian Aid
3) Support Human Rights
Accomplishments of George H. W. Bush (1989-1993)
- Under George H. W. Bush, Communism fell in Europe and Germany was
unified in 1990. Yugoslavia, a socialist state, collapsed. Finally, in 1991,
the Soviet Union fell.
- From 1990 to 1991, the United States was involved in the Persian Gulf War (First Iraq
War). This was also called Operation Desert Storm. This war was a result of Iraq (led by
Saddam Hussein) invading Kuwait. Kuwait was an ally of the United States and a major
supplier of oil to the United States. This was the first war where American women served
in a combat role.
Accomplishments of William “Bill” J. Clinton (1993-2001)
- Under Bill Clinton, the formation of the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) came about. This removed many trade restrictions in the Western
Hemisphere. It was intended to stimulate the economies of the US, Canada
and Mexico.
- When Yugoslavia collapsed in the 1990’s, it broke up into smaller states
based on ethnic groups. When the smaller states began to have conflicts
(Bosnia), Clinton called in NATO to keep the peace. This was a success.
- Clinton lifted economic sanctions against South Africa when its
government ended the policy of apartheid. Apartheid was an official policy of racial
segregation formerly practiced in the Republic of South Africa, involving political, legal,
and economic discrimination against nonwhites.
- Clinton also opened full diplomatic relations with Vietnam.
Accomplishments of George W. Bush (2001-2009)
- The United States’ policy of defense and foreign policy changed greatly
after the attacks on September 11, 2001.
- The War in Afghanistan: After the 9/11 attacks, the United States pushed
the Taliban (the terrorist group that planned the attack) out of Afghanistan.
This was a success and the Taliban was removed from Afghanistan.
- The War of Iraq: As Iraq was not compliant with UN weapons inspections and Hussein
continued to slaughter his own people, the US invaded. Hussein was removed from office
and executed. Iraq became democratic.