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10.1 Part I:
Core Study:
World War I
1914–1919:
A Sourcebased Study
Russell Devine
2011
Syllabus Covered:
1. War on the Western Front
o
the reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front
o
the nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with
experiences of Allied and German soldiers
o
overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key
battles: Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele
o
changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over time
2. The home fronts in Britain and Germany
o
total war and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and
Germany
o
recruitment, conscription, censorship and propaganda in Britain and
Germany
o
the variety of attitudes to the war and they changed over time in Britain
and Germany
o
the impact of the war on women’s lives and experiences in Britain
3. Turning Points
o
impacts of the entry of the USA and the Russian withdrawal
o
Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive and the Allied Response
4. Allied Victory
o
events leading to the Armistice, 1918
o
reasons for the Allied victory and German collapse
o
the roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in
creating the Treaty of Versailles
HSC Modern
History 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
War on the Western Front
The Reasons for the Stalemate on the Western Front
The Failure of War Plans
→ The war began as predicted with the mobilisation of the major powers.
o Germany through the 6480 trains.
o Three great armies of France moved to retake the lost prize, Lorraine.
o British ships to French ports, holding 125,000 men of the BEF1 ready to march east.
o Strong nationalism in countries.
- Men urged to fight for country – country comes first.
- The desire for honour2, patriotism and service to the country.
- Propaganda used to paint a picture of victory, and the enemy as pure evil.
- Women celebrated and fare welled men as heroes.
→ It took three short weeks for the plans to go wrong.
o German troops met heavier resistance then expected in Belgium, slowing the army
down by 10 days in a battle at Liege.
o Then the BEF intercepted the 1st German army in a battle at Mons.
o The BEF were proud to be called “The Old Contemptibles3”
o The French were being torn to pieces in Lorraine.
- 300,000 French Soldiers killed in two weeks.
- Plan Seventeen failed.
o Germany’s invasion of France went wrong
- The Russian army attacked Germany sooner than expected, causing the
army to be split up to reinforce the eastern border.
- Men had to walk once they were at the German borders, causing exhaustion
by the time they reached France.
Those battalions which flanked further west had to walk even
further.
- With the failure of Plan Seventeen the French retreated to reinforce and cut
off the Germans.
→ Battle of the Marne
o The Schlieffen planned appeared successful, with Paris viewable on the skyline.
o The German Generals made a fatal mistake – instead of the 1st army going west to
surround Paris it went east towards Marne.
- This was to close the gaps forming in their lines.
o This gave France the opportunity to save itself.
- 250 taxis were used to transport troops to the front lines.
1
British Expeditionary Force (BEF)
Remember that there was currently a class-war occurring, the lower classes wanted to be respected.
3
This was derived from a comment made by the Kaiser describing the British Army slowing down the
Schlieffen Plan.
2
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
The Reasons for the Stalemate on the Western Front
o
The battle of the Marne lasted a week (5-11 Sept) and one of the biggest ever
fought.
o Two million battled across a 240km front.
o Gradually the French and BEF1 drove the Germans back where they dug trenches to
defend themselves.
→ The ‘Race to the Sea’
o Generals on both side abandoned war plans
and attempted to outflank each other.
o As they attempted to outflank each other
they moved closer to the sea with a trench
line trailing the movements.
- The most violent battle during this
time was that of Ypres where the BEF
stopped the Germans from
outflanking them. Resulting in large
loss for the BEF.
Losing 10,774 of its 12,000
soldiers.
o Neither side won, resulting in a trench line all
the way to the ocean to Switzerland
o Stalemate.
The Schlieffen Plan – “Paris for lunch, dinner in St Petersburg” -Kaiser
→ Unforeseen Problems
o Supply problems created by rapid advance through Belgium.
o France could deploy reserve armies speedily using railway.
o Rail transport ended at Belgium border.
o Exhausted infantry.
o Underestimated importance of Royal Navy and the BEF.
o Invaded the neutral country of Belgium which was under protection of Britain.
o Belgium Resistance
- Belgium soldier did not wear uniforms which made it hard for Germans to
distinguish from civilians.
- Belgium snipers attacked the German armies – this scared the Germans and
impacted on morale.
This led to retaliation on civilians who were innocent.
Every German death will result in the murder of 10 Belgium civilians.
Britain used this in Propaganda to paint Germans as monsters –
saying that it was genetically related.
o Unforeseen immediate attack into East Prussia.
→ Proposed Revision
o Abandon invasion of Holland, neutral nation would be useful for trade.
o Armies in the centre of Lorrain were to be reinforced.
o East frontiers left lightly defended.
→ Implications of Revised Plan
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
o
o
o
o
o
German attack through Belgium would create a bottleneck.
- Four rail lines converged at this point resulting in delay.
Reinforcing the centre seriously weakened the original concept of a strong attack on
the right flank.
Right wing of the Germany army too weak to take Paris from west and south.
Eastern Front was left poorly defended.
Considered impossible to force French back upon Verdun forts.
Historians View
→ Failure of this plan was due to the advent of railway.
o While Germans attacked on foot the French could move across the country on
railway.
→ There were demolished bridges and low supplies to slow down the offence.
→ In modern times it could be effective with the ability of air support to neutralise the enemy’s
easy movements.
The nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with
experiences of Allied and German soldiers
Structure of a Trench
→
→
→
→
→
Holes were cut out for soldiers to sleep in.
Not always lined with sandbags.
Barbed wire was put in front of the trench to slow down the enemy4.
Duckboards allowed soldiers to step out of the mud.
Trenches designed in zigzag formation to minimise and contain the effects of explosions and
shrapnel.
→ Some dug outs led to rooms with lighting, electricity and bunks known as funk holes5.
4
5
Ironic seeing it would slow the defenders army down as well if they wanted to attack the other army.
Mainly German trenches had such advanced features.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
The nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with experiences of Allied and
German soldiers
Nature of the First World War
→ Described as a static war6.
→ No breakthrough was achieved by either side during this time because the technology then
available allowed defensive tactics to be more effective than offensive tactics.
o Weapons such as mounted machine guns were very effective.
- Most deadly infantry weapon of the war.
o Tank was first breakthrough but it was not used strategically at first which made it
ineffective.
→ This was not recognized by the generals who commanded the armies of the First World War.
→ Described as a war of artillery.
→ Poison Gas and Tanks were two innovations developed during the war had varying
effectiveness7.
Life in the Trenches8
→ The First World War was dominated by trench warfare.
→ Daily routine led to boredom, occasional terror of battle, rather relaxed in some areas.
→ Soldiers attempted to keep fighting to a minimum –shells were fired to make aware that
soldiers were there, not necessarily to try hitting each other.
→ Food was mainly tinned and flavorless.
→ Artillery barrages would begin at any time.
Mud
→ North-eastern France and Belgium received frequent rain that, combined with the clay of
the trenches and the constant artillery bombardments, resulted in muddy swamp.
Sickness & Disease
→ Trenches were frequently filled with water.
→ This led to the condition of trench foot.
o Toes could rot off and develop to gangrene leading to amputation.
→ The water in the trench developed into a putrid concoction of human and military debris.
o The stench caused vomiting which made it worse.
→ Corpses attracted swarms of flies.
→ Created ideal conditions for disease.
→ Common diseases/conditions include
o Measles
o Mumps
o Frostbite
o Gangrene
Lice
→ Every soldier had lice.
→ Tormented men night and day.
→ Constant scratching developed skin conditions and infection.
6
Not moving/stationary.
Weaponry, its development and success is discussed further on.
8
Not all listed, others include: Gas gangrene, the cold, shell shock and physiological injury.
7
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
Weapons of the First World War9
→ Air Raids
o New type of warfare not used on large scales.
o Strategic bombing on sources, industrial and human.
o German Zeppelin raids on England in 1915.
- Due to English defenses, Germans switched to night attacks.
o Improvement s made aircraft more venerable.
o Effect of air raids were limited – no evidence of real effect.
o Reconnaissance work was seen for them.
→ Artillery
o Medium and heavy guns played key role, these were important in trying to break the
stalemate.
o German Big Bertha was the largest artillery weapon.
o Three major advancements in technology.
- Command & control.
- Location of targets.
- Accuracy of fire.
o Third Battle of Ypres10 saw 4.3 million shells fired in 19 days.
o Anti-aircraft artillery first used.
o Artillery attack was a precursor of an oncoming assault.
→ Battleships
o Most important component of the world’s navies and a major expression of national
pride.
o HMS Dreadnought was the first big gunship – rendering all other ship obsolete.
o Eventually supplemented by Submarines.
o Germany aimed to attack Britain’s smaller fleets.
o The Battle of Jutland was the first major battle between the two naval giants
Germany and Britain.
- After this they remained close to port as both Britain and Germany did not
want to risk modern ships.
o Britain ships blocked German shipping routes which helped undermine the German
economy.
→ Submarines
o British design was small as they only saw value in them as coastal defense.
o Germans overuse of submarines caused US involvement.
→ Gas
o The Germans were the first to use chemical weapons in 1915.
o Caused at least one million casualties.
o After first attacks many counter methods were established.
- Antidotes, handkerchiefs soaked in bicarbonate soda, and gas respirators
were ways to negate the gas.
9
Note that the knowledge of weapons is not emphasised in the syllabus therefore it is not necessary to know
in such the detail that is provided here.
10
Also referred to as Battle of Passchendaele
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the
Somme, Passchendaele
o
→ Tanks
o
o
o
o
o
Gas could be blown back on the attackers.
Conceived by the British army.
Tanks were a direct response to static trench warfare.
Goal was to overcome the enemy barbed wire and machine guns and cross trenches.
No effective strategies were constructed for the tanks which led to their demise.
Noise and heat inside them was so intense that crews could spend only three hours
inside them.
They were easily stuck in mud and difficult to steer.
- They became trapped in deep mud.
o
Weapons and Tactics
→ Generals had little understanding of the applications of the newly developed technologies.
o They had often been cavalry officers.
→ Battle plans were those of quick action, not suitable for trench warfare which was not
overcome quickly.
→ Generals persisted with costly frontal assaults with little detailed planning and organization.
→ Artillery would be fired continuously to kill the enemy and the waves of troops would walk in
and claim what was left.
o This was ineffective as the enemy survived bombardments and cut down assaults
with machine gun fire.
o The artillery gave away the element of surprise.
o The enemy usually sheltered in dugouts and the barbed wire remained intact.
→ Generals were incapable of communication once an assault began, therefore a soldiers
instinct was what made the decisions once attacking began.
Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including
key battles: Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele
Overview11
Attempts to Break the Stalemate 1915
→ Champagne January – March.
o French were desperate for help from Britain.
o Attempted to gain ground but failed.
o French lost 100,000 casualties.
→ Neuve Chapelle March – May
o British attacked with some success.
o Resulted in Germany concentrating more forces to oppose the British.
st
→ 1 Battle of Ypres April 1915
o Germans tried to break through using submarines and gas.
11
This overview is just to give you an idea of order to assist the flow of essays. The syllabus does not require
such in-depth knowledge of all these battles.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
o
The gas and artillery were successful but forces were not fast enough to take
advantage of the gap.
→ Gallipoli April – December
o Britain attempted to attack the Dardanelles to allow the British navy through the
Black Sea.
o Was unsuccessful and the amount of losses worried Britain.
Attempts to Break the Stalemate 1916
→ Verdun February
o German offensive on the important strategic fort Verdun.
o French could not allow withdrawal
→ The Somme
o Britain attack to take pressure off France at Verdun.
o Turns into a war of attrition.
o Only 13km was gained.
Attempts to Break the Stalemate 1917
→ Neville Offensive
o New French commander wanted to push forward in attack as the new German line
was withdrawn.
o Disastrous failure in which France concluded any attempt to lead an assault.
nd
→ 2 Battle of Ypres
o British attack with initial success but was not followed up.
rd
→ 3 Battle of Ypres July
o Bombardment destroyed drainage system.
- Heavy rain led to the troops being bogged in the mud.
o Battle of Passchendaele has some success.
- Especially Australian troops.
→ Cambrai
o First major tank assault (324 tanks) which led rapid gaining of territory – but not
supported causing initial gains to be lost.
Attempts to Break the Stalemate 1918
→ German Spring Offensive
o Germany switched 52 divisions to the East after collapse of rusher to try countering
the arrival of the US army.
→ Operation St Michael March
o Germany assault with new infantry tactics causing the Allies to fall back alarmingly.
o US arrived and the Allies had huge reserve troops and equipment marking them
superior to German forces.
→ Allied Offensives July – November
o During this time the Allies attacked continually using its superiority in resources and
better tactics.
o November 11, 1918 – Armistice.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the
Somme, Passchendaele
Battle of Verdun 1916
→ The Allies planned a massive offensive in the summer but the Germans beat them to it by
attacking Verdun.
→ Falkenhayn decided to try destroying the French army at Verdun and thereby forcing the
British surrender.
→ Another reason was that Verdun controlled a vital route to Paris making it strategically
important.
→ Not only this but Verdun was considered by France as their strongest fortress12 – retreat
therefore was not an option.
o The 13 forts were now useless as the guns had been taken out of them, making
them weaker then the French public perceived.
→ The war turned into the most bloody of the war gaining names such as ‘the mincing
machine’ and ‘the hell of Verdun’
o Between March and July 24 million shells were fired.
o It became a war of attrition by this point.
→ At the end of February the French were near collapse with the Germans gaining two lines in
three days.
o The loss of Verdun was not seen as an issue to the Generals, but this changed when
Briand, the French Prime Minister was furious and ensured that Verdun would be
held at whatever cost.
→ There was a change in command and in one week 190,000 men marched along the main
route from Paris – ‘The Sacred Way’ as the French called it.
o The route was re-paved with men and supplies pouring through it each hour
endlessly.
→ After ten month the German called off the campaign because the British had begun a huge
attack on their northern line.
→ Verdun cost Germany 280,000 casualties and the French 315,000 casualties. No gain was
made.
Battle of the Somme 1916
→ There were two reasons for Britain’s Somme Offensive:
o To relieve pressure on the French at Verdun.
o Britain’s new commander-in-chief, Sir Douglas Haig, believed that an offensive was
necessary.
→ They were capable of the offensive because:
o Munitions factories were reaching maximum capacity.
o Conscription had been introduced in January 1916.
o British army strength at 1,263,000 by April 1916 with 100,000 new recruits a month.
o Council of Allies was formed to coordinate the war effort.
→ Aims:
o Drive through the German lines into the open country.
o Cut off German supply lines from army.
o Force a German surrender.
12
It was sometimes described as the symbol of their countries’ strength – which is why they couldn’t lose it.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
→ Preparations:
o Britain attempted to make plans secret.
o Germans expected attack and strengthened positions.
- Set up on high ground to see Allies preparations.
- Built underground shelters deep enough to protect men from shell fire.
- Reinforced barbed wire.
- Well supplied with light machine guns.
o British infantry lacked training.
- No training in formation.
- Junior officers poorly trained and wasted lives.
- One gun every 50m – France had one gun every 18m.
o Both side used planes for reconnaissance.
→ British tactics
o Artillery bombardment took place for one week before the attack.
- This bombardment destroyed trenches but underground shelters were not
allowing Germans to be ready with machine guns at the conclusion of the
bombardment.
- The bombardments did not damage barbed wire fortifications at all which
was not expected by Haig.
o July 1st, in the morning the frontal assault began. After two minutes of advance the
German machine guns opened fire.
- British suffered 20,000 dead and 40,000 wounded.
o The French delayed their assault by two hours tacking the Germans by surprise and
taking their objectives.
- There were 7000 casualties and 80 sq km of ground gained.
o On the 11th July the German commanded ordered for the assault on Verdun to
conclude to counter the new attack at Somme.
o German resistance remained too strong for the British to breakthrough.
o The battle was broken off on 18th November – with no breakthrough.
o Casualties for the battle:
- British: 600,000
- French: 195,000
- German: 450,000
The French had as many men on the field and faced as many
German divisions as the British.
o Haig blamed the loss on the inexperience of the soldiers; it was arguably due to
Haig’s leadership.
- Poor infrastructure of roads and rails held up reserves and supplies.
- Failure to train infantry adequately.
- Men were sent overloaded into battle.
- Artillery support was inadequate.
- Out-of-date belief that cavalry was important in the war.
- Tanks were misused.
o The battle was a total defeat for Haig, despite arguments that go against this.
- The battle went for 141 days instead of 14 days.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the
Somme, Passchendaele
-
-
British army was worn out by the offensive.
The battles at Verdun and the Somme had also weakened the German army.
The idea of the war of attrition tactic was argued by Haig.
All governments introduced further restrictions and planning controls on the
home front.
Haig refused to accept the failure of his strategy.
He was supported by the King.
He therefore remained as the commander-in-chief.
After the battle Haig claimed the aim was to wear the enemy down, not
breakthrough their defences. It is clear from his order before the battle this
was not the case.
Third Battle of Ypres – Passchendaele
→ Ancient city of Ypres had been closely surrounded on three sides by German troops since
1914.
→ The Ypres offensive began on 31 July 1917.
→ The horror of this campaign, fought in the most terrible conditions, has come to exemplify13
the whole tragedy of the Great War.
→ This was more a campaign then a battle –fought over several months during the second half
of 1917.
→ There is much dispute over the personality and plans of its architect, Douglas Haig.
o Those who blame Haig for the huge losses sustained at Passchendaele claim that he
was a withdrawn and unapproachable man who was quite unaware of the suffering
of his soldiers and the shocking condition of the ground over which they had to fight.
o Others think him a man of vision who wanted to desperately win the war on the
Western Front.
→ There had been artillery bombardment for two weeks straight in July, by the time the assault
was about to begin the battlefield looked like the moon.
o It began to rain and the shell craters filled with water. Streams flooded and the mud
became stickier and more widespread as the rain continued to fall.
o The battlefield looked like a quagmire14.
→ The mud was the main hardship of the entire battle.
o The mud stuck to soldiers boot and uniform like cement.
o It was impossible for the movement of horses, supplies or tanks.
o The wounded often slipped into water-filled shell-craters and sank into the mud,
lost.
→ “…sobbing moans of agony, and despairing shrieks… powerless to move, they were slowly
drowning… and we could do nothing to help them.” – E.C. Vaughan, 1981
→ Haig refused to back down despite the conditions; he wanted the Ypres at any cost.
o This was achieved on 6th November 1917.
o British casualties: 250,000
o German casualties: 200,000
→ This war outlined the incompetence and insensitivity of the British High Command.
13
14
illustrate
swamp
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
Haig
→ Between the wars the leaders Joffre’s, Haig’s and Hindenburg’s reputation crumbled due to
the diaries and memoirs of the ex-soldiers.
→ Idea of ‘chateau generalship’ came about to reflect the idea of the realities of the trenches
compared to the ‘easy life’ of the high command far back behind the lines.
Arguments for Haig
→ Haig had to keep the war plans simple, as the troops were untrained. – J. Terraine
→ Haig argued the other generals were useless and blamed them for many of the problems. –
Diary of Douglas Haig
→ He was a machine programmed for war. He understood war meant large loss and in such an
environment of the First World War this was needed. – J. Buchan
→ The nature of the war was so new that Haig could not expect to adjust to all these new
changes. Including:
o First war of aviation.
o First real under-sea war – entirely altering the nature of naval power.
o First combustion engine.
o New breed of men in uniforms
o War of wireless telegraphy
o First of two great artillery wars
o First chemical war
o First war of modern mass production
- These points made by historian J. Terraine
Arguments against Haig
→ Lloyd George blamed Haig for the huge casualties on the Western Front.
→ Haig’s training and development of the soldiers was flawed. – D. Winter
→ Poor strategist, inflexible and wasteful of men’s lives, had little knowledge of infantry war
and did not try to find out. – Liddell Hart
→ Unimaginative and a poor judgment of subordinates. – Bean
Changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over time
→ The outbreak of the war was met with much enthusiasm.
o It was seen as an opportunity of adventure and excitement while also earning
honour in a righteous cause.
o There were those who feared the evils of war but this was a minority, it was
reassured that the husbands and sons would be back before Christmas.
o This positive atmosphere remained even after the war settled down and turned to
one of attrition.
→ Large quantities of poetry came out of this war to any other which reflected its nature,
soldier’s attitudes or attempted to divert the soldier’s thoughts from its realities.
o Well known poets include Wilfred Owen (died only days before the armistice),
Siegfried Sassoon, Robert Graves and Rupert Brooke (whose poems were filled with
patriotism and idealism.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
Changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over time
→ War allowed an option to those in the high class at boarding school, and the working class to
choose from factory work or unemployment.
→ There was an omnipresent bond of fellowship with comrades.
→ Historian Denis Winter concludes that some soldiers liked the war, more hated it, and there
were those who exhibited passive acceptance – it was something that had to be done.
The Christmas Truce 1914
→ The war was obviously not over by Christmas, it had settles into trench routine.
→ On Christmas morning men jumped out of their trenches to meet in no man’s land. This was
almost always initiated by the German soldiers.
→ Photographs, gifts and addresses were exchanged. Soldiers played games of football and
some exchanged food.
→ The most important aspect of this event was that the soldiers were able to see and talk to
their enemies as people. There was no government propaganda or depiction of monsters,
each side saw each other as people – this was likely the only time in the war when such a
thing happened.
o After this unofficial truce there was to be no encounter or human dignity displayed
in such away – instead it transformed into a war of attrition.
→ The truce was also taken advantage for trench maintenance, repair barbed-wire and retrieve
fallen comrades.
Changing Attitudes After 1916
→ Enthusiasm dropped during 1915, which is shown through the drop of voluntary recruitment
in England that year.
→ The realities of the trenches set in and despair replaced enthusiasm.
→ Winter points out that the infantry was made up of those with backgrounds in poverty. They
could make light of hardship, were more familiar with sudden death and experienced
bereavement15 with a greater degree of acceptance than we do today.
15
grief
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
The Home Fronts in Britain and
Germany
Total War and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain
and Germany
Total War: demanded the mobilisation of all of a community’s potential strength. The government,
armed forces, finance, labour, industry, primary production, media, social services, transport and
communication were used as weapons16 in total war.
An Overview of Total War
→ The war had a deeper and more profound impact on the German home front than it did in
Britain.
→ German military, not the civilian politicians, controlled the country.
A new kind of war
→ This ware would involve whole communities, not just soldiers at the front.
Increased central powers for government
→ The people had less control, as the governments increase.
o Censorship and emergency powers for government and police.
o The censorship led to less civil rights for the people.
o These laws were passed by the parliament and Reichstag.
→ In Britain the political framework was established by the Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) in
August 1914.
→ In Germany a political truce, the Burgfrieden was declared in 1914, and all political efforts
were devoted to the war.
Coordination and planning of economic activity
→ In Britain the Munitions War Act 1915 gave control over production, supply and prices.
→ In Germany a war economy was created. Walter Rathenau established the War Raw Material
Department which controlled the market.
Censorship and Propaganda
→ In all three countries censorship and propaganda became associated with the war effort.
They were seen as essential for security and to maintain morale.
Problems of Finance
→ The war was expensive. Adjustment to taxation and War Loans17 were used to help pay for
the war.
16
Not physical weapons – but used to have negative effects on an enemy’s economy – e.g. country X and
country Y are at war, country X only lets country Z (a neutral country) trade with them if they don’t trade with
country Y; this will lead to a shortage of resources and possible demise of country Y’s economy.
17
Make loan to the government for the war and get paid back at very high rate of interest afterwards.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
Total War and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany
Management of Human Resources
→ Britain and Germany both had conscription.
→ Britain and Germany both regulated the labour supply.
o Ensuring those industries that had a direct relationship to the war effort did not
have a shortage of labour.
Rationing
→ Germany had to import one third of its food.
→ British were an island and struggled whereas Germany was surrounded by enemies and food
shortages were much worse.
Price control problems
→ Inflation and price rises with financing the war.
→ Despite attempts to block it, the black market flourished.
→ Government ensured that those who had low income or wealth were still capable of getting
basic needs despite the inflationary prices.
o Use of brochures was a way of doing this.
Changes in the role and status of women
→ As employment opened women found work and filled these roles.
o Some had shortages of money and were forced to.
o This was a contributing factor to feminism and the understanding of women’s
capabilities.
Britain
→ Britain was confident entering the war.
o It had a vast empire of men and resources.
o It commanded the most powerful navy in the world.
- This planned to stop Germany’s vital food and resources supplies.
o It led the world into the industrial age which it has dominated for the past 100 years.
o Had a small but well trained professional army.
→ This confidence caused:
o Large quantities of men enlisted who left their jobs causing serious disruption to the
economy.
o Many skilled tradesmen and experienced workers enlisted when in reality they
would have been more valuable to the war effort in their jobs.
- H. G. J. Moseley was a physicist who enlisted and died in 1915. An example
of the flaws in government enlistment and its inability to provide positions
for well educated and intellectual individuals.
o Britain was undersupplied due to the loss of so many people in the workforce. There
was a profound shortage of army boots due to not enough qualified people
remaining in the country.
→ The two-faces of Britain’s economy became evident when the war began.
o Britain was no longer the giant she appeared to be.
o In reality she was out produced in many important areas by both Germany and the
United States.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
o
o
There were serious limitations in areas of electrical engineering and machine tools.
British munitions and explosives industries lagged seriously behind that of Germany
in 1914.
o An example of Britain’s shortcomings was that the fuses used to detonate explosives
were manufactured in Germany. Each fuse used against Germany in the war cost an
extra 13 cents.
→ As a result to Britain’s poor economy the Government intervened.
o Seeking the cooperation of the unions to increase productivity through the Crayford
Agreement.
o Legislation was introduced to grant these new powers.
- Manpower Board in 1915
- Munitions of War Act of 1915
- Ministry of Labour in 1916
o By 1918 the British Government had taken control over:
- Railways
- Docks
- Shipping
- Coal production
o The War Cabinet and the Prime Minister were given executive power.
- This took away the luxury of long discussions in parliament as decisions
needed to be made quickly18.
Germany
→ Germany needed the war to be short19 as it had badly exposed imports, especially food.
o One third of Germany’s food came from overseas.
o Food became a critical issue after six months into the war.
- Loss of agricultural workers to the army created food shortages.
o Due to the blockade by the Royal Navy’s blockade, its supplies drained fast.
→ News of war produced a positive response.
→ Political opinions and plans:
o War Credits used to help fund the war.
o Banks could print their own money.
- The money supply was no longer controlled by the state which devalued the
currency dramatically.
o Kaiser declared party politics was a thing of the past, Germans were unified for war.
o Prussian siege law of 1851 was invoked, making the military responsible for public
safety; limiting civil rights.
o Described by Burgfrieden, as a ‘fortress’ or ‘civic truce’ devoted to winning the war.
→ Trade unions agreed to avoid disputes for the duration of the war.
→ These political decisions led to military dictatorship as the war progressed.
→ OHL20 came to dominate decision making.
18
In other words parliament had barely any say in policies and decisions for Britain.
They were confident of this initially as described in the Schlieffen Plan.
20
German General Staff or General Headquarters
19
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
Recruitment, Conscription, Censorship and Propaganda in Britain and Germany
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
o Decision to extend unrestricted U-boat warfare against Britain.
o Rejection of a negotiated peace.
o Control of labour, food, raw materials, propaganda and censorship.
Appeared short-sighted on food rationing.
o The army was its prime concern although understandable, food shortages among
civilians hurt industrial production.
- The food crisis led to Germany’s collapse as much as the Allies approach.
Little economic planning in Germany as a short war was predicted, the main attention was
on mobilisation.
o The mobilisation led to a drop in industrial production between 30 and 40 percent.
Walter Rathenau recognised the real basis of modern military power in 1907 when he wrote:
“The war god of our times is economic power”.
Walter Rathenau was head of the War Raw Materials Department.
- This controlled the supply of raw materials, production, labour, rationing,
travel, wages and price.
A three-part plan was adopted to maintain supply:
o Regulation
- Rationing and control of production.
o Synthetic manufacture
- Natural or imported products were replaced by products that had been
created by other means.
o Substitutes
- Ersatz products of the German home front.
These were things such as coffee but made with different
ingredients.
The increase in the control of organisations and regulations meant that Germany had an
economy that resembled a socialist state.
National Service Law of 1916 controlled Germany’s industrial labour force.
o Those between 18 and 60 must register for war work.
Agricultural production dropped between 50 and 70 percent.
Factors for drop in production include:
o Shortage of labour and increased demand.
o Limited supplies.
o Horses used for military, made them unavailable to farms anymore.
o 1916-17 saw bad season and poor harvests.
o Low morale made industrial production levels fall.
Recruitment, Conscription, Censorship and Propaganda in Britain and
Germany
Recruitment & Conscription Britain
→ Relatively small British army.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
→ Estimation of 100000 enlistments a month was expected.
→ Three types of enlisters
o
enthusiastic
o
unsure
o
the others
→ Initially men enlisted enthusiastically due to:
o
Romantic adventure/excitement
o
Defend the king, country and empire
o
Escape dreary existence
o
Opportunity for full-time job
o
Peer pressure
o
Impress women
→ People thought they would be home by Christmas
o Men had to meet high standards but after loss on the front line the standards
gradually removed.
o Campaigns become more radical.
o Propaganda was directed to women to encourage me to enlist.
o Failure to enlist was lack of patriotism.
→ Posters attempted to shame men into enlistment
o Sport clubs promoted recruitment.
o Football grounds used for military drills.
o Encouraged people in the crowd to enlist.
→ Voluntary system was failing
→ Failed Derby Scheme in 1915 directly asked men between 18-41 to enlist when required at a
later date. It failed and was dumped.
→ Military Service Act introduced 5 January 191621
o This stirred anger.
o 16000 men registered as conscientious objectors during the war.
- Due to strong religious beliefs or against killing other people.
- Regarded as cowards and imprisoned if reasons not valid.
- Some took non-combat positions.
- People received harsh treatment even to the point of being taken to the
front and tied to posts in no-man’s-land if they refused to submit to army
control.
German Recruitment & Conscription
→ There was no need to embark on a recruitment campaign.
→ Conscription had traditionally been accepted in Germany during peacetime.
o Meant Germany had large forces and man power immediately at the start of the
war.
o So many men were part of army or moved to essential industries which led to
agriculture suffering.
21
Conscription
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
Recruitment, Conscription, Censorship and Propaganda in Britain and Germany
Methods of Propaganda
→ Propaganda uses stereotypes.
o Propaganda can never allow the positive reality to be considered.
o British propaganda painted Germans to be savage barbarians who rape women,
murder priests and throw babies into the air for bayonet practice.
→ Proper names should not be used.
o ‘Huns” “the Boche” “the enemy”
→ Selective in the use of material.
o This is where censorship comes in.
o Avoids referring to information that does not fit the message.
- Such as enemy soldiers helping ‘Tommies’.
- Defeats minimised, victories played up.
→ Propaganda frequently lies.
→ Adolf Hitler, Germany’s leader on World War II, believed repetitive propaganda is repetitive.
o Also referenced the bigger the lie and the more frequently it is repeated, the more
likely it will be believed.
o This makes repetitive stories seep into the minds of British people; it did not matter
if these were true.
Britain Propaganda
→ Organised by the Secret War Propaganda Bureau from 1917-1918.
→ Department of Information took over afterwards until the end of the war.
→ Newspapers were vital for disseminating news and for spread of propaganda messages.
o Cartoons were very powerful.
→ Recruitment
o Before conscription recruitment posters were the dominant part of the propaganda
effort.
- These both targeted the eligible but those that influenced them such as
young women.
o 1915, 54 million recruitment posters had been printed.
→ War Funding
o Governments desperately tried to fund the war; civilians were encouraged to invest
in the war by investing in government war bonds.
→ Anti-German Propaganda
o Invested considerable energy in whipping up anti-German feeling in the population.
- Atrocity stories of German’s invasion into Belgium.
- Sinking of the Lusitania was exploited to demonstrate the German’s evil.
→ Practical Messages
o Some posters focused on the practical messages.
- Appeals not to waste food or not to go on strike.
→ Morale Boosting
o Much effort was devoted to sustaining morale and passing on positive news from
the front.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
German Propaganda
→ War Funding
o There was desperate need to raise funds for the war effort, similar to Britain.
→ Anti-British Propaganda
o National hate campaign was launched against Great Britain.
- Hymn of hate
- Gott Strafe England (God punish England) was stamped on envelopes,
engraved on jewellery, stamped on pots and pans, on pocketknives and
soldiers’ braces.
o Morale Boosting
- As the war progressed, the Germans focused less on anti-British messages
and more on a positive celebration of the efforts of their military forces.
- Myth-making devoted to creating a national hero out of Hindenburg.
Britain Censorship
→ Defence of the Realm Consolidation Act of 1914 gave the government the right to regulate.
o To prevent the spread of ‘false reports or reports likely to cause disaffection’ or to
interfere with the ‘success’ of the armed forces or prejudice ‘relations with the
armed forces’.
o Britain’s Ministry of Information sent artists to the front to produce paintings, films
and cartoons.
- Official historians and photographers reconstructed the war that they were
not allowed to get too close.
Scenes showing soldiers going over the top was done well behind
the lines.
Images of dead and severely wounded were carefully excluded.
German Censorship
→ Good news such as German victories over the Russians was highlighted.
o Misinformation was fed to the people, bad news was excluded.
→ In the final stage of the war the High Command’s heavy-handed control bred cynicism and
concealed the real state of affairs from political leaders.
Variety of Attitudes and how they changed over time in Britain and
Germany
Politics
→ War put strain on political system.
o Britain’s democratic system withstood the change.
o In Germany there was breakdown and revolution.
Britain
→ Shortage of guns and shells – at start of the Somme.
o This triggered a political scandal resulting in Lloyd George replaced Asquith as Prime
Minister in 1916.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
Variety of Attitudes and how they changed over time in Britain and Germany
o
Lloyd George proved to be an effective wartime leader.
- There was tension between him and Haig over costly strategy on the
Western Front, yet the traditional balance between political and civilian
roles was maintained.
o Lloyd George also proved to be effective in dealing with unions and strikers, even
though the government had considerable power he used conciliatory22 approach in
dealing with industrial unrest.
→ There was no challenge to Britain’s democratic system.
Germany
→ Unlike Britain, Germany had not been fully democratic in 1914.
o Elected Parliament, Reichstag, had little influence over the head of government, the
Chancellor who was appointed by the Kaiser.
o Army held special position only responsible to the Kaiser.
o Germany quickly became even less democratic.
o High command gained considerable power allowing them to bypass the Chancellor
and eventually the Kaiser.
- By 1918 Ludendorff was virtual head of a military dictatorship.
→ Prior war Social Democrats had been calling for greater democracy.
o This opposition halted with the outbreak of war.
o People broke away and called for peace and socialism gradually.
o They provided leadership for the revolution that broke out at the end of 1918.
o Therefore, pre-war tensions contributed to the collapse of the German home front.
→ High Command was military efficient, yet it was not suited to manage political and economic
affairs on the home front.
o Civilian food supply was neglected
o Discontent from workers was dealt with harshly
o This inefficient management allowed other political figures to oppose the army on
decisions like unrestricted submarine warfare and pressured for peace to be made
much earlier than Ludendorff did.
War Weariness
→ Civilians faced increasing economic hardship and the terrible impact of the long casualty list
that affected so many families.
→ In Britain the middle class sacrificed as costs raised yet incomes remained unchanged.
o Increasing number of strikes, especially during Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive in
1918. Strikes by:
- engineers
- munitions
- workers
- miners
- London police
→ War weariness was worse in Germany, issues:
22
forgiving
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
In response to the Somme, government introduced Hindenburg program taking
people away from farming which worsened food situation.
- This caused public resentment.
Food was replaced with substitutes – turnips instead of potatoes.
Long opposed socialists re-emerged as people’s support faltered.
- Spartakist group was formed; leaders were imprisoned due to anti-war
views.
Increase in radical socialists led to industrial unrest.
- April 1st 1917 Germany experienced major strikes in metal-working and
munitions centres. Strikers suppressed ruthlessly by the government23.
Strikes, mutinies in the navy and growing opposition broke out in 1918.
Cities including Hamburg and other important cities were taken over by rebels;
Bavaria was declared a socialist republic.
The Kaiser abdicated and the High Command advised the new government to end
the war.
War weariness contributed to the collapse of Germany. Suggested reasons:
- In Germany economic hardship was much greater. There was actual
starvation.
- The German High Command, which was virtually running the country late in
the war, mismanaged the economy, failing to balance the needs of industry,
military and agriculture.
- High Command had little skill dealing with political opposition, whereas
British PM Lloyd George negotiated with trade unions.
Peace Movements
→ Governments wanted military victory and the benefits including
o annexed territory24
o extract indemnities25
→ Ultimately it was President Wilson’s proposal that provided the basis for peace.
→ International women’s movement was a constant voice for peace.
o On the basis of no indemnities and disarmament, the creation of international
courts and a ‘concert of nations’.
→ Britain 1916, former Labour Party leader Ramsay MacDonald publicly expressed a desire for
peace.
→ August 1917, Pope Benedict XV made a peace proposal based on compromise.
o Status quo ante basis26.
o Negations based on moral rightness, not force of arms, mutual disarmament,
mechanism of international arbitration, liberty and common rights over the sea, no
war indemnities, the evacuation of all occupied territory and an examination of rival
claims.
23
this is a clear trend with opposition in Germany
formally taker over a territory
25
responsibility for payment of a debt or costs
26
as things were before
24
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
The Impact of the War on Women’s Lives and Experiences in Britain
o
Central powers were interested, but Britain and France did not reply. President
Wilson replies declining proposal and declaring no negotiations were possible with
the existing German government.
- Wilson wanted the removal of the Kaiser and his military advisers before any
terms of peace could be negotiated.
Pacifism27 and Internationalism
→ While future wars would not be avoided, they would no longer be accepted with the
innocence and faith of 1914.
→ There is a strong anti-war response which is evident from the work of post-war poets, artists
and novelists.
o Most famous example, a novel by Erich Maria called Quiet on the Western Front.
The Impact of the War on Women’s Lives and Experiences in Britain
Traditional Role
→ Women wore the tragedy of lives lost throughout the war.
→ Women were used in recruiting propaganda.
o The images in this propaganda depicting the traditional role of women.
o Encouraged men to fight while they looked after home and family.
New Roles of Women
→ Dislocation of labour caused by the prolonged conflict demanded women play a new role in
the economy.
o Previously women in workforce were restricted to menial occupations, now the
opportunity to take on male traditional roles was open to them.
→ First attempts to work were rejected.
o July 1915, 30,000 women came together to protest the refusal of their ability to
work.
→ March 1915 the Board of Trade allowed women to sign up on the ‘register of War Service’.
o In two months 80,000 had signed up.
→ By November 1918 more than 7 million women were employed in ‘war work’.
Munitions Workers
→ Largest employer of women was the Ministry of Munitions.
→ Under DORA, women were ensured equal pay and conditions.
→ Dangers for women in munitions industries:
o Explosions claimed at least 200 lives.
- Figures were suppressed.
o Toxic jaundice, from handling TNT was an occupational hazard.
- Killed 106 female workers.
- Long exposure to the TNT turned skin and hair yellow.
Let to nickname of ‘canaries’.
27
belief that war is never justified and is always able to be settled through arbitration
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
Nursing & Voluntary Aide Detachments (VAD)
→ 3,246 nurses at the start of the war, 23,029 by the end of the war.
→ Nurses served in war zones, sometimes on the front.
o Open to the same dangers.
o Able to receive medals and military decorations.
→ Middle and upper class women were employed by the Voluntary Aid Detachments to
provide help to the sick and wounded in the case of an invasion.
o 74,000 members by August 1914.
o Tended the unexpected flood of wounded from Belgium and France.
o They were accepted service in the war zone in 1915.
Women’s Land Army
→ Women’s Land Army formed in 1916 to attract women to work on the land.
o Food production was becoming a priority.
o Wages were poor, less than £1 for 10-12 hours work 6 days a week.
o By 1917 there were 260,000 women serving on the land.
Women’s Armed Forces
→ Allowed to serve in uniform in the Queen Mary’s Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps28
(QMWAAC), 57,000 had served by November 1918.
o Cooked, drove ambulances, entertained soldiers, worked as clerks, typists,
telephonists, storemen, packers, drivers and mechanics in army bases.
→ Woman’s Royal Naval Service formed November 1917.
o Worked in over 100 different jobs, most previously considered too hard for women.
Women as percentage of workers in various
occupations: 1914 - 1920
60%
53%
50%
40%
30%
27%
26%
12%
9%
28%
27%
24%
20%
10%
40%
37%
35%
14%
10%
4%
2%
0%
1914
Industry
28
29
1918
Tansport
Agriculture
1920
Commerce
All Workers
previously known as Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps
The following graph is just to identify the general trends, not to memorize statistics.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
29
The Impact of the War on Women’s Lives and Experiences in Britain
The Impact on Women’s Lives
→ War had differing effects according to class.
o Young working class women were largely the ones moving into the traditional male
working class jobs.
o Middle and upper class women tended to do more volunteer work or join one of the
uniformed services.
→ Women munitions workers lived in dangerous conditions but with relatively good wages.
o Outside work hours these women had independence and money to make choices
about their social activities.
- This is a dramatic contrast to pre-war domestic servants on low wages, very
little off time and required to be ‘respectable’ at all times.
→ Women no longer needed escorts to maintain their reputations.
→ Change in clothing and appearance.
o Women were allowed to smoke publicly.
o Skirts became shorter, for practicality in work place.
o Women wore trousers.
o Changes in women’s fashion.
A Lasting Impact?
→ WW1 had been a step for altering the position of women in Britain and other western
societies, but it was a relatively small step30.
→ Women retained some social independence that had acquired during the war.
o Change in women’s fashions became more or less permanent.
o 1920s were a period of economic hardship for Britain.
- The working class women had the most limited economic opportunity.
→ In most cases women had to give up ‘male jobs’ they had taken on.
o Secretarial work for women was retained.
→ In 1918 the British Parliament passed the Representation of the People Act, giving women
the right to vote.
o Lord Asquith said “How could we have carried on the war without them?”
- This contributing their efforts in the war as the cause.
- Vote only given to householders over the age of 30.
30
This is opinionated! Reason it is included is to remind oneself to have one when evaluating the information.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
Turning Points
Impacts of the Entry of the USA and of the Russian Withdrawal
US Entry into World War I
→ America declaring its neutrality had strong support for not getting involved in Europe’s
complicated disputes.
→ Under international law the US was free to trade with both sides.
o Britain imposed a blockade on all merchant ships trading with Germany.
o Germany reflected but instead of simply stopping ships, they were fired on.
- Notably sinking the passenger liner Lusitania on 31st May 1915 by a German
U-boat, American civilians were amongst the 1200 that lost their lives.
o President Wilson protested against both naval blockades.
→ Fearing that US would enter the war on the Allied side, Germany responded to the USA
protests by agreeing to alter the submarine campaign.
o Instead U-boats would surface to give indication that the boat was about to be sunk.
- This gave crew time to evacuate and also armed vessels could fire on the
submarine or ram it making them less effective.
→ US neutrality greatly favoured the Allies.
Value of Trade with the US
$3,500,000,000
$3,214,000,000
$3,000,000,000
$2,500,000,000
$2,000,000,000
Britain & France
$1,500,000,000
$1,000,000,000
$500,000,000
Germany
$824,000,000
$169,000,000
$1,159,000
$0
1914
1916
→ Faced with this trade imbalance and Britain’s effective blockade, the German government
announced the reintroduction of ‘unrestricted submarines warfare’.
o Vessels heading to Britain would be sunk without warning.
o This was a gamble, it was thought they could starve Britain into surrender before
America arrived or decided to join the war.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
Impacts of the Entry of the USA and of the Russian Withdrawal
→ German attacks on US merchant vessels convinced President Wilson that America has to
enter the war against Germany.
o Congress was reluctant but the ‘Zimmerman Telegram’ was the final straw in
convincing them.
- This was the bizarre proposal encouraging Mexico to invade the US to them
distracted from the European war31.
- 7th April 1917 the US Congress voted to declare war on Germany.
→ $7 billion dollar ‘War Bond’ bill was drawn up, May 1917 President Wilson signed the bill for
the drafting of men aged 21-31.
o First men arrived in France on 27th June 1917.
→ It would take a year for the US to draft, train and transport a large army to Europe.
o In the meantime the Germany U-boat campaign failed to starve Britain.
- Due to Britain merchant ships going in convoys protected by fast armed
escorts.
→ By early 1918 approximately 500,000 US soldiers were in France. In July this was at
1,450,000 in Europe or on the way.
→ Americans troops were important in stopping Ludendorff’s offensives in May, June and July
1918.
o They allowed the more experienced troops to be rested and ready for the offensives
planned.
Russian Withdrawal
→ In March 1917 more Russians setbacks and deteriorating conditions culminated in the forced
abdication32 of Tsar Nicholas II.
o Russia’s new Provisional Government chose to continue with the war effort.
o After initial success against both Austrians and Germans the Russians were
defeated.
- Commands for soldiers to remain were met with mutiny and desertion.
- By early August the Russians were in general retreat.
→ Set-backs on the front saw revolution as the Provisional Government was overthrown by the
communist Bolshevik Revolution.
o Germany and Bolsheviks began negotiations as the new government wanted peace.
o Germany had won the battle of the Eastern Front and gained a new ‘empire’ in the
East.
o Germany was now free to move the extra troops and resources across to the
Western Front.
- Even though America had entered the war on the Allied Side, it was the
Germans who were reinforced first with troops who were already welltrained and battle-experienced.
- Ludendorff planned to use these reinforcements in a final major push to
achieve victory before the American troops could make a difference.
31
Is this telegram fake? Considering the transcript was ‘intercepted by Britain’, the US is nearly five times the
size of Mexico, and has a huge military capacity… almost definitely, yet it can’t be argued absolutely.
32
removal/resignation of power
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive and the Allied Response
Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive
→ Ludendorff abandoned straight line advance.
o Instead specially trained, storm troops were used to move forward destroy specific
objectives and then move on quickly without any attempt to consolidate.
- In this way they could sow panic in the Allied rear areas and make rapid
progress.
→ Ludendorff’s offensive comprised of five major attacks launched between March and July33.
1. March 21 ‘Michael’, 63 German divisions attacked 26 British divisions.
- In 5 days the Germans recaptured the old Somme battlefield and threatened
Amiens.
- On 4-5 April the German advance was halted by British and Australian
troops.
4,000 ANZACs held 25,000 Germans.
2. April 9 ‘Georgette’, Germans stormed Messines Ridge and captured Armentieres.
- April 25, Australian infantry halted the German advance and recaptured lost
land in an unconventional night attack.
3. May 27, ‘Blucher’, Germans drove French troops back 60km to the Marne River.
- Paris appeared to be in danger of attack.
4. June 9 ‘Gneisenau’, directed to join up the areas already taken by German advances.
- French and American troops stopped the advance.
5. July 15 ‘Reims-Marneschutz’, Germans crossed the Marne but were beaten back by
a surprise counter attack.
→ Each attack was initially successful.
o German troops had advanced 65 kilometres.
- Being closer to Paris then in 1914.
o Each attack grounded to a halt while waiting for reserves to fill in.
The Allied Response
The Battle of Hamel, July 1918
→ July 4 1918, 7500 Australians and 1000 American troops were used to capture the fortified
village Le Hamel.
o Operation was planned by Australian General John Monash.
- His background as a civil engineer was important in his ability to plan a
coordinated assault.
o Monash used newly arrived V tanks as his assault weapon, with each tank supported
by infantry.
- Tanks pushed forward under a creeping artillery barrage using chlorine gas
and supported by aircraft dropping bombs on enemy reserve positions.
- Machine guns were carried forward to pre-arrange positions.
- Supplies were replenished by ‘carrier’ tanks and innovatively air-dropping
ammunition to forward positions.
33
Each have code names in order to identify them from each other.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive and the Allied Response
-
Village was secured in 96 minutes with minimal casualties.
Monash’s plan was issued as a pamphlet for the commanders on the
Western Front.
The Allied Counter Offensive
→ The German Spring Offensive now at a halt saw a recoil effect as the Allies launched the last
major offensive of the war.
→ The Allied counter attack at Amiens on 8 August 1918 saw immediate success.
o German defences were outnumbered 6 to 1.
o Allies inflicted 27,000 casualties and 12,000 prisoners.
o Even though German forces halted the advance, Ludendorff referred to 8 August as
‘the black day of the German Army’.
→ Foch and Haig launched a new offensive at Albert on 21 August.
o Included 108,000 members of the recently arrived American Expeditionary Force
(AEF).
o Advance was halted by the Germans but Albert was captured.
o By August 23, 8000 Germans were captured and the Germans had begun to retreat
along a 55 km front.
o By August 29, Allied forces had reached the Hindenburg Line, the main German
defensive position.
→ Early September 300,000 AEF and 1400 aircraft launched against the St Mihiel salient.
o German high command ordered partial withdrawal of troops.
o 110,000 French troops attacked 3 hours after the initial assault.
o There was a 9km advance and Allied control of St Mihiel.
→ Foch decided to order an attack at Meuse-Argonne in attempt to cut off the Germans.
o 400,000 AEF troops were given the main attacking role supported by tanks and
aircraft.
o Advanced only 3km the first day and halted.
o Four days later the offensive continued, the Germans began to retreat and Fresh
American troops advanced 32km when the cease fire was announced.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
Allied Victory
Wilson’s Fourteen Points
Events Leading to the Armistice, 1918
→ American President Wilson had been exploring a peace-making role for
much of the war.
o He become more insistent on the change in German
government as America got more involved.
o January 8 1918, developing a fourteen point plan on the basis
for world peace.
→ German military were interested in peace but on their terms.
o The successful allied offensives changed this perception as they
no longer could threaten victory.
o Germans were forced to consider Wilson’s proposal, knowing it
would be far more generous than that of Britain and Frances.
o General Ludendorff submitted his resignation.
→ October 1918, the German High Command requested the politicians
seek an armistice based on Wilson’s proposal.
o Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and a new provisional government
was formed with Social Democrat leader Freidrich Ebert as
leader.
o Erbert’s government has the task of signing the Armistice on 11
November 1918.
Reasons for the Allied victory and German collapse
Strategic Advantages and Disadvantages for Germany
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
No secret agreements
between nations.
Freedom of the seas.
Removal of economic
barriers.
Disarmament.
An impartial adjustment of
colonial claims.
The evacuation of all
Russian territory.
The evacuation of all
Belgian territory.
The evacuation of French
territory and the restoration
of Alsace Lorraine.
Adjustment of Italy’s
borders.
An opportunity for the
various people of AustriaHungary to seek autonomy.
The evacuation of Romania,
Serbia and Montenegro;
Serbia given access to the
sea and issues in the
Balkans resolved.
Autonomy for different
nationalities within the
Ottoman Turkish Empire.
An Independent Poland.
The formation of ‘…a
general association of
nations…’ to ensure that all
nations had protection
against aggression.
Advantages
→ It had the strongest economy in Europe; its factories well suited to
producing the massive quantities of armaments demanded by an
industrial war.
→ Had a large standing army that was well-equipped, well-trained and
well-led.
→ Held a position in Central Europe which was strategically compact and relatively easy to
defend.
→ War was mainly fought on Allied territory allowing defensive tactic for Germany.
→ Allied powers were relatively poorly prepared for a land war in Europe, its generals using the
costly strategies and took a long time to come to terms with trench warfare.
Disadvantages
→ Germany had planned the success of the Schlieffen Plan to achieve a quick victory.
o Once this failed it faced a long war on two fronts.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
Reasons for the Allied victory and German collapse
→ British naval blockade had efficiently cut off its world trade, with the German U-boat
campaign bringing the US into the war.
→ Germany did not have strong allies to provide military and economic support.
→ In the long run Germany was unable to match the technological and industrial potential of
the Allies and their empires.
o The longer the war lasted the worse the blockade would disadvantage Germany.
→ Allies had stronger economic backing with America able to provide large amounts of loans to
its allies.
→ Allies outnumbered Germany in manpower after America arrived, overwhelming in
technology and morale.
Collapse of the German Home Front
→ The long war of attrition put strains on all home fronts but it was Germany’s which collapsed
and had the largest impact.
o Blockade led to food shortages and inflation by 1916; by 1918 some people were
actually starving in Germany.
o The German High Command put the military before agriculture by to large a degree
resulting in disastrous shortages in food supply.
o Political disputes broke out despite the political truce that existed.
- They pressured peace and revolution.
o Evidence of growing discontent:
- 1,000 strikes per month 1915.
- 100,000 strike per month 1918.
The Battle Front
→ The deterioration of the German home front was paralleled by the events on the Western
Front.
o Russia’s surrender and the initial success of Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive offered
some hope to Germany in early 1918.
- Except once halted the German army has exhausted its reserves.
o Allied commanders finally understood proper strategies to coordinate the
technology available.
- Appointment of Marshal Foch to Commander and Chief to coordinate the
Allied armies.
o War weariness and declining moral spread through German ranks due to the retreat
after the Allied counter offensive.
o Through gaining ground the German troops found it discouraging how better
supplied in food and ammunition the allied troops were, badly affecting morale.
o It was clear by 1918 that the German army could not win the war.
- Allied has too many tanks and aircraft.
- They had too many men and large prospects of more.
US Entry into the War
→ The entry of America was a crucial factor in the war, being a major blow to German morale.
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10.1 Part I: Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study
o
o
While Germany struggled to fill its divisions the Allies had access to millions of US
draftees.
German factories were coming to a halt, US was just beginning to reach full capacity.
British Naval Power
→ Britain’s powerful navy gave her the opportunity to effectively put a blockade on Germany
which forced it into economic hard ship and collapse on the home front.
→ Britain had won the pre-war naval race and was destined to dominate the sea before the
war started.
Other Considerations
→ It must be noted that the interrelationship between these factors is complex; the victory of
the war was a close run:
o Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive that broke the stalemate on the Western Front
threatened Paris and the whole Allied position.
- At this point Allied victory looked impossible, even when the push ran out of
steam.
o There was a long window of opportunity before the US troops started arriving.
- Germany’s chance to overthrow the Allies was very close to beating the
arrival of the US.
o German and Russian home fronts collapsed, both the British and French home fronts
had been placed in perilous situations.
o German and French sections of the army mutinied, had Germany pushed they could
have captured the French sectors.
o Haig was largely criticised by historians for the huge loss of human life that can be
attributed to him, yet there is a view that he is ultimately responsible for the Allied
victory.
- In the end he won the battle of attrition and forced the Germans into
unsustainable economic policies in order to hold their positions.
The Roles and Differing Goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and
Wilson in Creating the Treaty of Versailles
The Paris Peace Conference
→ Convened on 18th January 1919.
→ Delegates from all the victor nations attended the conference but it was dominated by the
Big Three:
o President Woodrow Wilson – United States
o Prime Minister David Lloyd George – Britain
o Premier Georges Clemenceau – France
→ This was a complex task as all nations had their own personal motives.
→ Russian and Austro-Hungary empires had collapsed calling for a need to redraw boundaries
and create new nations.
Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1
The Roles and Differing Goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in Creating the Treaty of
Versailles
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Wilson’s idea of self determination granted ethnic groups their own countries, this
formed minorities and issues in the long term.
Poland was established which divided Germany.
Austria and Germany were not allowed to unite, denying the right of selfdetermination.
After the revolution of Russia the western powers feared the spread of communism.
Ottoman Empire had collapsed and Germany lost its colonies to the aAllies.
- This was done as a mandate, basically making them colonies of the Allied
powers.
Though defeated, Germany retained its potential as a major military power.
- France feared Germany’s resurgence; it wanted to ensure that Germany was
permanently weak.
This went against Wilson’s ‘just’ peace agreement.
The war caused widespread suffering, damage and economic decline to the major
powers.
- The created strong pressure to extract payment from the defeated powers.
Again opposing the idea of a ‘just’ peace agreement.
The Big Three
Wilson
→ An idealist who had noble ideas of a just peace and an internationalist era when the League
of Nations34 would stop conflict.
→ Aim was to make future wars impossible.
→ Disagreed that Germany should pay the cost of the war damage.
o He believed Germany was not the only one to blame.
o Believed that Germany should still pay some level of reparation.
→ The treaty
Clemenceau
→ Was a French nationalist uninterested in Wilson’s lofty idea of just peace.
→ Wanted to punish and permanently weaken Germany.
o Demanded 200,000,000,000 gold francs are paid in reparations.
o Germany must be incapable to attack France again.
- Taking away much land, industry and armed forces.
→ The conference being held in Paris gave unfair influence to Clemenceau.
Lloyd George
→ Was a realist who came between the two men and helped to achieve compromise.
o In favour of many of Wilson’s fourteen points.
o Could understand that if defeated nations were treated to harshly then they would
become angry and resentful British public wanted George to be tough on Germany.
34
Which the US was never a part of making it powerless
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The Roles and Differing Goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in Creating the Treaty of
Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles
→ Germany was not admitted to the Paris Peace conference.
→ Decisions made by USA, Britain, France, Italy and Japan
o Mainly USA, Britain and France.
→ The new socialist and democratic government now representing the people had removed
the Kaiser and the High Command, based on President Wilson’s requests.
o They were expecting a just peace but were faced with much severity.
- Treaty referred to as diktat35.
→ Key parts36:
o Clause 231, ‘war guilt’ demanding they take full responsibility for starting the war.
o Loss of 13% of European territory which separated many ethnic Germans.
o A part of Prussia became part of Poland as it extended to the sea37, East Prussia was
separated from the rest of Germany.
o Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France.
o France administered the Saar coalfields.
o Rhineland38 was demilitarised and occupied by Allies for 15 years.
o German colonies were awarded to the League of Nations as mandates for the
victorious powers.
o Allies assumed control of the German fleet.
o German army limited to 100,000.
- Denied heavy military, planes and submarines.
o Reparations in which Germany would not know the amount.
- The first payment was the surrender of the German merchant fleet, all
overseas owned property and coal deliveries.
- Final reparations figure in 1921 announced US$40 Billion.
o Germany and Australia were not allowed to unite.
- Subverting President Wilson’s point of ethnic groups being granted selfdetermination.
→ Protests by German delegates were ignored; they had no choice but to sign the treaty of
face invasion and continual blockade.
→ Treaty was signed on the 28 June 1919 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
o Few Germans felt any obligation to comply with the treaty.
→ John Maynard Keynes39 was horrified by what he saw in the political peace treaty by the
victors. It would jeopardise any chance of restoring Germany and with it European capitalist
stability.
35
a dictated peace
map on next page to show changes in land
37
known as the Polish Corridor
38
western borders of Germany
39
an economist
36
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Russell Devine | HSC Modern History Notes – Syllabus Topic 10.1