Download Argos Argos lies on the fertile Argolid plain in the eastern

Argos
Argos lies on the fertile Argolid plain in the eastern Peloponnese in Greece. The site has been inhabited
from prehistoric times up to the present day. Ancient Argos was built on two hills: Aspis and Larissa, 80
m and 289 m in height respectively. Argos, along with Mycenae and Tiryns, was a significant Mycenaean
centre, and the city remained important throughout the Greek, Hellenistic, and Roman periods until its
destruction by the Visigoths in 395 CE.
In ancient Greek mythology, the city gained its name from Argos, son of Zeus and Niobe. Homer’s Iliad
tells of Argos sending men to fight in the Trojan War, as being ruled by Agamemnon, and as a place
celebrated for its horse rearing. The city is also described by Homer as being especially dear to the
goddess Hera.
THE CITY'S MYTHICAL HERITAGE MEANT ARGOS ENJOYED A CERTAIN PRESTIGE EVEN IN ROMAN
TIMES.
The city perhaps reached its greatest dominance in the 7th century BCE under King Pheidon, who is
credited with introducing to mainland Greece such military innovations as hoplite tactics and double
grip shields. From the 7th to 5th century BCE, the city was a long-time rival to Sparta for dominance of
the Argolid. The role of Argos during the Persian wars of the 5th century BCE is ambiguous, the city
either remaining neutral or displaying pro-Persian sentiment. Nevertheless, it was during this century
that Argos began to assimilate smaller surrounding states such as Tiryns, Mycenae, and Nemea. It was
as part of this expansion that Argos also took over as host of the biennial Panhellenic games originally
held at Nemea, firstly from c. 415 BCE to c. 330 BCE, and again definitively from 271 BCE. This fact and
the city's mythical heritage meant Argos enjoyed a certain prestige even in Roman times. Hadrian, in
particular, was generous to the city, building, amongst other things, an aqueduct and baths.
Theatre of Argos
Visible today are Mycenaean tombs (14th to 13th century BCE), a theatre (4th to 3rd century BCE, with
2nd and 4th century CE modifications), an odeum for dramatic and musical performances (5th century
BCE), the sanctuary of Aphrodite (430-420 BCE), foundations and walls of the agora (5th century BCE),
Roman baths or thermae (2nd century CE), and parts of the ancient, Cyclopean, citadel walls
(incorporated into the medieval fortress fortifications on the Larissa hill). The theatre is particularly well
preserved and includes 81 rows of seats which would have given it a capacity of 20,000 spectators - the
largest of any Greek theatre.
Argos was excavated principally by the French School of Archaeology, and various artefacts have been
found at the site including terracotta figurines (13th century BCE), pottery in the geometric style (8th
century BCE), armour (7th century BCE), Roman sculpture, and two 4th-5th century CE mosaic floors
depicting Dionysos and the months of the year. Most of these now reside in the Archaeological
Museum of Argos.
Athens
The city of Athens, Greece, with its famous Acropolis, has come to symbolize the whole of the country
in the popular imagination, and not without cause. Athens began as a small, Mycenaen community and
grew to become a city that, at its height, epitomized the best of Greek virtues and enjoyed such prestige
that the Spartans refused to sack the city or enslave the citizens, even after Athens' defeat in the
Peloponnesian War. This set a model that would be followed by future conquerors who would defeat
Athens but not destroy it.
EARLY SETTLEMENT
Evidence of human habitation on the Acropolis and, below, in the area around the Agora, dates back
clearly as far as 5000 BCE and, probably, as early as 7000 BCE. According to legend, the Athenian King
Cecrops named the city after himself but the gods, seeing how beautiful it was, felt it deserved an
immortal name. A contest was held among the gods on the Acropolis, with Cecrops and the citizenry
looking on, to determine which deity would win the honor. Poseidon struck a rock with his trident and,
as water gushed forth, he assured the people that now they would never suffer drought. Athena was
next in line and dropped a seed into the earth which sprouted swiftly as an olive tree. The people
thought the olive tree more valuable than the water (as, according to some versions of the story, the
water was salty, as was Poseidon's realm) and Athena was chosen as patron and the city named for her.
UNDER PERICLES, ATHENS ENTERED HER GOLDEN AGE AND GREAT THINKERS, WRITERS, AND ARTISTS
FLOURISHED IN THE CITY
As the soil was not conducive to large-scale agricultural programs, Athens turned to trade for its
livelihood and, mainly, to sea trade. The early Mycenaean period (c. 1550 - 1100 BCE) saw massive
fortresses rise all over Greece, and Athens was no exception. The remains of a Mycenaean palace can
still be seen today on the Acropolis. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey portray the Mycenaeans as great
warriors and seafaring people, and there is no doubt they traded widely throughout the Aegean and
Mediterranean region. In c. 1200 BCE the Sea Peoples invaded the Greek archipelago of the Aegean
from the south while, simultaneously, the Dorians came down from the north into mainland Greece.
While the Sea Peoples made definite incursions into Attica (the mainland region surrounding Athens)
the Dorians by-passed the city, allowing the Mycenaean culture to survive (although, like the rest of
Greece, there seems to have been an economic and cultural downturn following these invasions). The
Athenians, afterward, claimed for themselves a special status in that they spoke Ionian, instead of Doric,
Greek and held to customs they felt were superior to their neighbors.
ATHENIAN GOVERNMENT & LAWS
The wealthy aristocrats held control of both the land and the government and, in time, poorer land
owners became enslaved (or nearly so) through debt to the more wealthy. Further, there was a
perceived lack of consistency among the other laws of the city. The first series of laws written to address
these problems were provided by the statesman Draco (also known as Dracon/Drakon) in c. 621 BCE but
were considered too severe (the penalty for most infractions was death), and so the great lawgiver
Solon was called upon to modify and revise them. Solon, though an aristocrat himself, created a series
of laws which equalized the political power of the citizenry and, in so doing, laid the groundwork for
democracy in Athens in 594 BCE. After Solon resigned from public office various factional leaders sought
to seize power and the ultimate victor, Peisistratos, recognized the value of Solon's revisions and kept
them, in a modified form, throughout his reign as a benevolent tyrant. His son, Hippias, continued his
policies until his younger brother, Hipparkhos, was assassinated over a love affair in 514 BCE. After this
Hippias instituted a reign of terror which finally culminated in the overthrow of the Peisistratid tyranny
in the Athenian Revolt of 510 BCE (backed by Sparta and lead by the Spartan Kleomenes). In the
aftermath of the coup, and after settling affairs with Spartan factions such as Isagoras's bid for power,
Cleisthenes was appointed to reform the government and the laws and, in 507 BCE, he instituted a new
form of government which today is recognized as Democracy. According to the historian Waterfield,
"The pride that followed from widespread involvement in public life gave Athenians the energy to
develop their city both internally and in relation to their neighbors". This new form of government
would provide the stability necessary to make Athens the cultural and intellectual center of the ancient
world; a reputation which lasts even into the modern age.
After the Athenians (with the help of Plataeans) defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon in 490
BCE and, again, after driving off a second Persian invasion at Salamis in 480 BCE (and soundly defeating
the Persians at Plataea and Mycale in 479 BCE), Athens emerged as the supreme naval power in Greece.
They formed the Delian League, ostensibly to create a cohesive Greek network among city-states to
ward off further Persian attacks, and, under the leadership of Pericles, grew so powerful that the
Athenian Empire could effectively dictate the laws, customs, and trade of all her neighbors in Attica and
the islands of the Aegean. The historian Waterfield writes:
There is no little irony in the fact that one of the things we most admire in the ancient Greeks is their
love of freedom - and yet one of the chief manifestations of that love was their constant striving to
control in some way the futures of their neighbors.
Peloponnesian War
The might of the Athenian Empire encouraged an arrogance in the policy makers of the day which grew
intolerable to her neighbors. When Athens sent troops to help Sparta put down a Helot rebellion, the
Spartans refused the gesture and sent the Athenian force back home in dishonor, thus provoking the
war which had long been brewing. Later, when Athens sent their fleet to help defend its ally Cocyra
(Corfu) against a Corinthian invasion during the Battle of Sybota in 433 BCE, their action was interpreted
by Sparta as aggression instead of assistance, as Corinth was an ally of Sparta.
Sparta
Sparta was one of the most important Greek city-states throughout the Archaic and Classical periods
and was famous for its military prowess. The professional and well-trained Spartan hoplites with their
distinctive red cloaks, long hair, and lambda-emblazoned shields were probably the best and most
feared fighters in Greece, fighting with distinction at such key battles as Thermopylae and Plataea in the
early 5th century BCE. The city was also in constant rivalry with the other major Greek cities of Athens
and Corinth and became involved in two protracted and hugely damaging conflicts, the Peloponnesian
Wars of the mid- to late 5th century BCE and the Corinthian Wars of in the early 4th century BCE.
Establishing Regional Dominance
Sparta was located in the fertile Eurotas valley of Laconia in the southeast Peloponnese. The area was
first settled in the Neolithic period and an important settlement developed in the Bronze Age.
Archaeological evidence, however, suggests that Sparta itself was a new settlement created from the
10th century BCE.
In the late 8th century BCE, Sparta subjugated most of neighbouring Messenia and its population was
made to serve Spartan interests. Sparta thus came to control some 8,500 km² of territory making the
polis or city-state the largest in Greece and a major player in Greek politics. The conquered peoples of
Messenia and Laconia, known as perioikoi, had no political rights in Sparta and were often made to
serve with the Spartan army. A second and lower social group was the helots, semi-free agricultural
labourers who lived on Spartan-owned estates. Intermediary between the helots and the perioikoi were
the liberated helots or neodamōdeis. Spartan citizens did not indulge in farming activities themselves
but devoted their time to military training, hunting, war, and politics. The helots could keep a
percentage of the produce they cultivated, but they were also regularly purged to keep them firmly in
their social place and they could also be conscripted into military duties in times of war.
[Sparta was] everywhere admired and nowhere imitated. Xenophon
The relationship between citizens and helots was an uneasy one and there were sometimes uprisings,
notably in the 7th century BCE which contributed to Sparta’s defeat to Argos at Hysiae in 669 BCE.
Sparta gained revenge on Argos in c. 545 BCE but then lost a battle with Tegea shortly after. This
regional instability brought about the Peloponnesian League (c. 505 to 365 BCE) which was a grouping of
Corinth, Elis, Tegea, and other states (but never Argos), where each member swore to have the same
enemies and allies as Sparta. Membership of the League did not necessitate the paying of tribute to
Sparta but rather the provision of troops. The League would allow Sparta to establish hegemony over
and dominate the Peloponnese until the 4th century BCE. In addition to local politics, from the 6th
century BCE Sparta began to broaden her horizons by, for example, creating an alliance with Croesus of
Lydia and sending an expedition against Polycrates of Samos in c. 525 BCE.
Rivalry with Athens, Thebes & Corinth
Sparta, under Cleomenes (c. 520-490 BCE), overthrew the tyrants of Athens but the resulting democracy
put a stop to any Spartan ambitions in the city. Sparta was, however, an ally with Athens in the defense
of Greece against the invasion of Persian king Xerxes, and fought with distinction at Thermopylae in 480
BCE and at Plataea one year later. From 480 to 460 BCE regional rivalries and revolts by the helots
damaged Sparta and worse were to follow when rivalry with Athens developed into the Peloponnesian
Wars from c. 460 to 446 BCE and again from 431 to 404 BCE. The long wars were damaging to both sides
but Sparta, with some Persian help, finally won the conflict when Lysander destroyed the Athenian fleet
at Aegospotami in 405 BCE. Sparta’s position as the number one city-state in Greece, though, was to be
short-lived.
Spartan Territory
Continued Spartan ambitions in central and northern Greece, Asia Minor, and Sicily once again dragged
the city into another protracted conflict, the Corinthian Wars with Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Persia
from 396 to 387 BCE. The result of the conflict was the ‘King’s Peace’ where Sparta ceded her empire
(for which she in any case lacked the necessary bureaucratic apparatus to manage properly) to Persian
control but Sparta was left to dominate Greece. However, trying to crush Thebes, Sparta lost the crucial
battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE against the brilliant Theban general Epaminondas. Thebes then annexed
parts of Messenia and Sparta became thereafter only a second-rate power.
After briefly challenging Macedonian control in the 3rd century BCE and being besieged by Pyrrhus in
272 BCE, Sparta never regained her former glory and she was compelled to join the Achaean
Confederacy in 195 BCE. Under Roman control Sparta was permitted to leave the confederacy in 147
BCE which prompted the Achaean War. However, as a free city in the Roman world things did improve
for Sparta, and the city enjoyed good relations with her conquerors but the end finally came for Sparta
in 396 CE when the Visigoth king Alaric sacked the city.
Government
The Spartan political system was unusual in that it had two hereditary kings from two separate families.
These monarchs were particularly powerful when one of them led the army on campaign. The kings
were also priests of Zeus and they sat on the council of elders known as the gerousia. This body
consisted of 28 over-60 years of age males who held the position for life. The gerousia led the citizen
assembly, probably proposing issues on which to vote and it was also the highest court in Sparta. The
assembly (Ekklēsia) met once a month and was open to all citizens who voted by the simple method of
shouting. There was also an executive committee of five ephors (ephoroi) chosen by lot from the citizen
body, able only to serve for a maximum of one year and who were ineligible for future office. Two of the
ephors also accompanied one of the kings when on campaign. Just how these different political
elements interacted is not known for certain but clearly a degree of consensus was necessary for the
state apparatus to function. It may also explain Sparta’s reputation as being a conservative state slow to
make decisions in foreign policy.
Society
Like all Greek societies Sparta was dominated by male citizens and the most powerful of those came
from a select group of families. These were the landed aristocracy, and following reforms credited to
Lycurgus in the 6th century BCE (or even earlier), citizens could not indulge in agricultural activities - this
was the lot of the helots - but they had to devote themselves to athletic and military training and
politics. Helots could not own property and so could not rise to become full-citizens, and this lack of
social mobility would come back to haunt Sparta in later centuries. Reduced by constant wars in the 5th
and 4th centuries BCE, the Spartan hoplites (homoioi) became dangerously small in number (8,000 in
490 BCE to 700 in 371 BCE), so much so, that non-Spartiate soldiers had to be enlisted and their loyalty
and interest in Sparta’s ambitions was questionable.
Women in Sparta had a better lot than in other Greek city-states. In Sparta they could own property
which they often gained through dowries and inheritances. In fact, women became amongst the richest
members of society, as their men were killed in the many wars, and eventually controlled 2/5th of
Spartan land. In addition, Spartan women could also move around with reasonable freedom, they could
enjoy athletics (done in the nude like men), and even drink wine. All of these freedoms would have been
unacceptable in other Greek poleis.
Delphi
Delphi was an important ancient Greek religious sanctuary sacred to the god Apollo. Located on Mt.
Parnassus near the Gulf of Corinth, the sanctuary was home to the famous oracle of Apollo which gave
cryptic predictions and guidance to both city-states and individuals. In addition, Delphi was also home to
the PanHellenic Pythian Games.
MYTHOLOGY & ORIGINS
The site was first settled in Mycenaean times in the late Bronze Age (1500-1100 BCE) but took on its
religious significance from around 800 BCE. The original name of the sanctuary was Pytho after the
snake which Apollo was believed to have killed there. Votive offerings at the site from this period
include small clay statues (the earliest), bronze figurines, and richly decorated bronze tripods.
FOR THE GREEKS DELPHI WAS CONSIDERED THE CENTER OF THE WORLD.
Delphi was also considered the center of the world, for in Greek mythology Zeus released two eagles,
one to the east and another to the west, and Delphi was the point at which they met after encircling the
world. This fact was represented by the omphalos (or navel), a dome-shaped stone which stood outside
Apollo’s temple and which also marked the spot where Apollo killed the Python.
APOLLO'S ORACLE
The oracle of Apollo at Delphi was famed throughout the Greek world and even beyond. The oracle - the
Pythia or priestess - would answer questions put to her by visitors wishing to be guided in their future
actions. The whole process was a lengthy one, usually taking up a whole day and only carried out on
specific days of the year. First the priestess would perform various actions of purification such as
washing in the nearby Castalian Spring, burning laurel leaves, and drinking holy water. Next an animal usually a goat - was sacrificed. The party seeking advice would then offer a pelanos - a sort of pie before being allowed into the inner temple where the priestess resided and gave her pronouncements,
possibly in a drug or natural gas-induced state of ecstasy.
The Oracle of Delphi
Perhaps the most famous consultant of the Delphic oracle was Croesus, the fabulously rich King of Lydia
who, faced with a war against the Persians, asked the oracle’s advice. The oracle stated that if Croesus
went to war then a great empire would surely fall. Reassured by this, the Lydian king took on the mighty
Cyrus. However, the Lydians were routed at Sardis and it was the Lydian empire which fell, a lesson that
the oracle could easily be misinterpreted by the unwise or over-confident.
PANHELLENIC GAMES
Delphi, as with the other major religious sites of Olympia, Nemea, and Isthmia, held games to honor
various gods of the Greek religion. The Pythian Games of Delphi began sometime between 591 and 585
BCE and were initially held every eight years, with the only event being a musical competition where
solo singers accompanied themselves on a kithara to sing a hymn to Apollo. Later, more musical
contests and athletic events were added to the program, and the games were held every four years with
only the Olympic Games being more important. The principal prize for victors in the Games was a crown
of laurel or bay leaves.
Tholos of Delphi
ARCHITECTURE
The first temple in the area was built in the 7th century BCE and was itself a replacement for less
substantial buildings of worship which had stood before it. The focal point of the sanctuary, the Doric
temple of Apollo, was unfortunately destroyed by fire in 548 BCE. A second temple, again Doric in style,
was completed in c. 510 BCE with the help of the exiled Athenian family, the Alcmeonids. Measuring
some 60 by 24 meters, the facade had six columns whilst the sides had 15. This temple was destroyed by
earthquake in 373 BCE and was replaced by a similarly proportioned temple in 330 BCE. This was
constructed with poros stone coated in stucco. Marble sculpture was also added as decoration along
with Persian shields taken at the Battle of Marathon. This is the temple which survives, albeit only
partially, today.
Other notable constructions at the site were the theatre (with capacity for 5,000 spectators), temples to
Athena (4th century BCE), a tholos with 13 Doric columns (c. 580 BCE), stoas, stadium (with capacity for
7,000 spectators), and around 20 treasuries, which were constructed to house the votive offerings and
dedications from city-states all over Greece. Similarly, monuments were also erected to commemorate
military victories and other important events. For example, the Spartan general Lysander erected a
monument to celebrate his victory over Athens at Aegospotami. Other notable monuments were the
great bronze Bull of Corcyra (580 BCE), the ten statues of the kings of Argos (c. 369 BCE), a gold fourhorse chariot offered by Rhodes, and a huge bronze statue of the Trojan Horse offered by the Argives
(c.413 BCE). Lining the sacred way, which wound from the sanctuary gate up to the temple of Apollo, the
visitor must have been greatly impressed by the artistic and literal wealth on display. Alas, in most cases,
only the monumental pedestals survive of these great statues, silent witnesses to a lost grandeur.
Corinth
Located on the isthmus which connects mainland Greece with the Peloponnese, surrounded by fertile
plains and blessed with natural springs, Corinth was an important city in Greek, Hellenistic, and Roman
times. Its geographical location, role as a centre of trade, naval fleet, participation in various Greek wars,
and status as a major Roman colony meant the city was, for over a millennium, rarely out of the
limelight in the ancient world.
CORINTH IN MYTHOLOGY
Not being a major Mycenaean centre, Corinth lacks the mythological heritage of other Greek city-states.
Nevertheless, the mythical founder of the city was believed to have been King Sisyphus, famed for his
punishment in Hades where he was made to forever roll a large boulder up a hill. Sisyphus was
succeeded by his son Glaucus and his grandson Bellerophon, whose winged-horse Pegasus became a
symbol of the city and a feature of Corinthian coins. Corinth is also the setting for several other episodes
from Greek mythology such as Theseus’ hunt for the wild boar, Jason settled there with Medea after his
adventures looking for the Golden Fleece, and there is the myth of Arion - the real-life and gifted kithara
player and resident of Corinth - who was rescued by dolphins after being abducted by pirates.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
First inhabited in the Neolithic period (c. 5000 BCE), the site became more densely populated from the
10th century BCE. The historical founders of the city were the aristocratic descendants of King Bacchis,
the Bacchiadae, in c. 750 BCE. These replaced the long line of kings which stretched back in time before
historical records. The Bacchiadae ruled as a body of 200 until in c. 657 BCE the popular tyrant Cypselus
took control of the city, to be succeeded by his son Periander (re. c. 627-587 BCE). Cypselus funded the
building of a treasury at Delphi and founded colonies which included Ambracia, Anactorium, and Leucas.
These added to the existing Corinthian colonies of Corcyra (Corfu) and Syracuse in Sicily which had been
founded in 734 BCE (traditional date).
From the 8th century BCE, the high quality of Corinthian pottery led to its export across Greece. Indeed,
Corinthian pottery, with its innovative figure decoration, would dominate the Greek pottery market
until the 6th century BCE when Attic black-figure pottery took over as the dominant style. Other
significant exports were Corinthian stone and bronzewares. Corinth also became the hub of trade
through the dilokos. This was a stone track with carved grooves for wheeled wagons which offered a
land short-cut between the harbors of Lechaion on the Corinthian Gulf and Kenchreai on the Saronic
Gulf and probably dates to the reign of Periander. In the Peloponnesian War the diolkos was even used
to transport triremes from one sea to the other and it continued to be used until the 9th century CE.
Although the idea for a canal across the isthmus was first considered in the 7th century BCE and various
Roman Emperors from Julius Caesar to Hadrian began preliminary feasibility studies, it was Nero who
actually began the project in 67 CE. However, on the emperor’s death, the project was abandoned after
three months, not to be resumed until 1881 CE.
From the early 6th century BCE, Corinth administered the Panhellenic games at nearby Isthmia, held
every two years in the spring. These games were established in honor of Poseidon and were particularly
famous for their horse and chariot races.
An oligarchy, consisting of a council of 80, gained power in Corinth in c. 585 BCE. Concerned with local
rival Argos, from c. 550 BCE Corinth became an ally of Sparta. Together, an expedition was launched
against Polycrates of Samos in c. 525 BCE but was ultimately unsuccessful. During Cleomenes’ reign
though, the city became wary of the growing power of Sparta and opposed Spartan intervention in
Athens. Corinth also fought in the Persian Wars against the invading forces of Xerxes which threatened
the autonomy of all of Greece.
Corinth suffered badly in the First Peloponnesian War, for which it was responsible after attacking
Megara. The Corinthians were also instrumental in causing the Second Peloponnesian War, when they
felt their regional interests centered in Corcyra were threatened by Athens in 433 BCE. Once again
though, the Corinthians, mainly as Sparta’s naval ally, had a disastrous war. The city did, however,
successfully defend its colony of Syracuse when it was attacked by Athenian forces. Disillusioned with
Sparta’s reluctance to completely destroy Athens after their victory in the war in 404 BCE and concerned
over Spartan expansion in Greece and Asia Minor, Corinth formed an alliance with Argos, Boeotia,
Thebes, and Athens to fight Sparta in the Corinthian Wars (395-386 BCE). The conflict was largely fought
at sea and on Corinthian territory and was yet another costly endeavor for the citizens of Corinth.
THE CITY WAS ONCE MORE FLOURISHING BY THE 1ST CENTURY CE AND BECAME AN IMPORTANT
ADMINISTRATIVE AND TRADE CENTRE.
One final conflict, this time against the invading Philip II of Macedon, was once again lost at Chaeronea
in 338 BCE. Corinth did become the seat of the Corinthian League, but an unfortunate consequence of
this dubious honor was a Macedonian garrison being stationed on the Acrocorinth acropolis overlooking
the city. A succession of Hellenistic kings took control of the city - starting with Ptolemy I and ending
with Aratus in 243 BCE, when Corinth joined the Achaean League. Worse was to follow, however, when
the Roman commander Lucius Mummius sacked the city in 146 BCE.
A brighter period returned to the city when Julius Caesar founded his colony at the site in 44 BCE and
organised the agricultural land into organised plots (centuriation) for distribution to Roman settlers. The
city was once more flourishing by the 1st century CE and became an important administrative and trade
centre. In addition, following St. Paul’s visit between 51 and 52 CE, Corinth became the centre of early
Christianity in Greece. In a public hearing, the saint had to defend himself against accusations from the
city’s Hebrews that his preaching undermined the Mosiac Law. The pro-consul Lucius Julius Gallio
judged that Paul had not broken any Roman Law and so was permitted to continue his teachings. From
the 3rd century CE the city began to decline and the Germanic Heruli and Alaric tribes attacked the city
in 267 CE and 396 CE respectively.
Olympia
Located in the western Peloponnese, Olympia was an ancient Greek sanctuary site dedicated to the
worship of Zeus, in whose honor Pan-Hellenic Games were held every four years from 776 BCE to 393
CE.
First inhabited in the second millennium BCE, the first archaeological record of dwellings dates from
1900 to 1600 BCE. The Kronion hill at the site was perhaps the first place of worship, dedicated to
Kronos. However, other sacred buildings at the foot of the hill in the sacred grove of wild olive trees, or
Altis, indicate other deities were worshipped such as Gaia, Themis, Aphrodite, and Pelops. With the
descent of western Greek tribes into the Peloponnese, though, it was Zeus, father of the Olympian gods,
who would become the dominant cult figure at Olympia.
The first large building on the site was the Heraion, a temple dedicated to Hera built around 650-600
BCE. In the 5th century BCE the sanctuary reached its peak of prosperity, and a massive Doric 6 x 13
column temple was completed in 457 BCE in order to house a hug e cult statue of Zeus. Designed by
Libon of Elis, the temple was the biggest in Greece at that time and measured 64.12 m x 27.68 m with
columns 10.53 m in height. The pediments of the temple displayed magnificent sculpture: on the east
side the mythical chariot race between Pelops and Oinomaos, and on the western pediment a
Centauromachy with the majestic central figure of Apollo. Metopes from the temple represented the
labours of Hercules. The statue of Zeus within the temple was by Pheidias (who had worked on the
Parthenon and its statue of Athena) and was a 12 m high gold and ivory representation of Zeus seated
on a throne and regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Other important building
projects over the centuries included baths and a swimming pool (5th century BCE), the new stadium
with embankments for spectators (mid-4th century BCE), a palaistra (3rd century BCE), a gymnasion
(2nd century BCE), hippodrome (780 m long), the large Leonidaion or guest houses (330 BCE), and the
Theikoloi (priest’s residence).
THE FIRST OLYMPIC GAMES WERE HELD IN 776 BCE AT THE FIRST FULL MOON AFTER THE SUMMER
SOLSTICE.
Sporting events were originally associated with funeral rituals, for example the funeral games instigated
by Achilles in honour of Patroklos in Homer’s Iliad. Some mythological accounts credit Zeus with
beginning the Games to celebrate his victory over Kronos; other accounts state Pelops began them in
honour of Oinomaos. In any case, sport, a healthy body and the competitive spirit were a large part of
Greek education, and so it is hardly surprising that organised athletic competitions would at some point
be created.
The first Olympic Games were held in 776 BCE at the first full moon after the summer solstice. The
winner of the first and only event, the stadion foot-race (one length of the stadium track, 600 feet or
192 m), was Koroibos of Elis, and from then on every victor was recorded and each Olympiad named
after them, thus giving us the first accurate chronology of the Greek world. During a three month PanHellenic truce, athletes and as many as 40,000 spectators came from all over Greece to participate in
the Games. Individuals and city-states brought offerings to Zeus which included money, statues
(including the magnificent Nike of Paionios, c. 424 BCE, and the Hermes of Praxiteles, late 4th century
BCE), bronze tripods, shields, helmets, and weapons resulting in Olympia becoming a living museum of
Greek art and culture. Many cities also built treasuries - small but impressive buildings to house their
offerings and raise the prestige of their city.
Over time other events were added to the Games such as longer foot-races, wrestling, boxing, chariot
racing, discus, javelin, jumping, and the pentathlon. At its peak there were 18 events spread over five
days. However, it was always the original stadion which remained the most important event. Victors
won crowns of olive leaves and an olive branch cut from the scared grove, but much more importantly
they won glory, fame, and in a very real sense historical immortality.
The Philippeion of Olympia
A second important event held at Olympia was the Heraia Games for women, held every four years in
honour of the goddess, Hera. Children, adolescents, and young women ran in separate foot-races over
500 feet of the stadium track (160 m). Prizes for victors included olive crowns and the right to set up a
portrait of themselves on the site. The responsibility for the organisation of both Games and for
maintenance of the site when not in use lay with the Eleans.
The Games continued through the Hellenistic period with the notable architectural addition of the
Philippeion, a circular colonnaded building erected by Philip II of Macedonia which contained gold
statues of the royal family (c. 338 BCE). The Romans, whilst giving little importance to the religious
significance of the Games, continued to hold them in high regard and despite the attempt by Sulla in 80
BCE to permanently move the Games to Rome, continued to embellish Olympia with new buildings,
heated baths, fountains (notably the Nymphaion of Herodes Atticus, 150 CE), and statues. Most
famously, emperor Nero strove to win the glory of Olympic victory in 67 CE, competing in, and
unsurprisingly winning, every event he entered.
With Emperor Theodosios’ decree to prohibit all cult practices, the Games came to an end in 393 CE
after a run of 293 Olympics over more than a millennium. The site gradually fell into decline, was
partially destroyed under the decree of emperor Theodosios II in 426 CE, and was taken over by a
Christian community who built a basilica on the site in the early Byzantine period. Earthquakes in 522
and 551 CE destroyed much of the remaining ruins, and silt from the nearby rivers Alpheios and Kladeos
eventually covered the site until its rediscovery in 1829 CE by the French Archaeological Mission and
systematic excavation by the German Archaeological Institute from 1875 CE.
Thebes
Thebes is a town in central Greece which has been continuously inhabited for five millennia. It was an
important Mycenaean centre in the middle to late Bronze Age and was a powerful city-state in the
Classical period, participating in both the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars, reaching its peak of influence
in the early 4th century BCE when it was the most powerful city in Greece.
THEBES IN MYTHOLOGY
In mythology the city was founded by Kadmos, son of Agenor, brother of Europa, and ancestor of
Oedipus. After killing a giant serpent (or dragon) which Ares had sent to protect the Areia Spring,
Athena instructed Kadmos to sow the serpent’s teeth into the ground from which sprang up warriors
who would found the city of Thebes. The myth of Kadmos may hint at the eastern origins of the city, as
his name may derive from the Semitic word qedem, meaning east. Also, according to Herodotus, it was
Kadmos who introduced the Phoenician script to Greece.
Thebes was, according to legend, the birthplace of the mythological pan-Hellenic hero Hercules. It was
also the place where the Sphinx - a mythical creature with a woman’s head and a winged lion’s body appeared to terrorize the area until her riddle was solved. Her riddle asked passersby to identify the
creature that may have two, three, or four feet, can move in air, water, and on land, and moves more
slowly the more feet it has. Oedipus solved the riddle - man - and in a rage the Sphinx leapt to her death
from the Theban acropolis.
Another mythological story connected to the city is the legendary expedition of The Seven Against
Thebes (and subject of the play of the same name by the 5th century BCE tragedian, Aeschylus). This
was traditionally dated a generation before the Trojan War. A war had started between the two sons of
Oedipus, Polyneikes had been exiled by his brother Eteokles, and the former enlisted the help of the
Achaeans from the Peloponnese to re-take the city. However, when scaling the walls of Thebes, six of
the seven champions, including Polyneikes, were killed. Nevertheless, the attackers were successful and
the Kadmeians of Thebes fled to the north. Thus a less civilized force took over the citadel. The myth
was perhaps a symbolic metaphor for the general situation in Greece following the end of the
Mycenaean civilization.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Strategically situated on a low plateau commanding the surrounding plains of Boeotia, Thebes (also
known as Kadmeia) was first inhabited around 3000 BCE. The fact that the modern town lies directly
upon the historical site has created difficulties in reconstructing an accurate history for the ancient city.
In the early to mid-third millennium, there is evidence of fortified buildings with rock-cut foundations,
stone-paved courtyards, mud-brick walls and drains.
FOLLOWING THE DARK AGES IN GREECE (C.1100 TO 700 BCE), THEBES RE-EMERGED AS AN
INFLUENTIAL GREEK CITY-STATE.
From 2500 BCE there is evidence of food and wool production and storage - grinding stones and
terracotta loom-weights and spools, and bronze carpentry tools. Trade, both local and further afield, is
suggested by the presence of precious goods such as gold, silver, ivory, and Cycladic influenced stone
vessels. From 2000 BCE the site expanded with the first presence of stone cists and pits for burials and
shaft graves which contained precious objects.
From 1700 BCE the settlement became more dense, and during the 14th century BCE the site reached
its Bronze Age peak during the Mycenaean period. There is evidence of palatial buildings of two stories
and with wall paintings, greater fortifications (probably of a Cyclopean nature and referred to in
Homer’s Iliad), workshops (especially for jewelry), and stone-built aqueducts with terracotta pipes. Clay
Linear B tablets and seals suggest the site was an important trading center in olive oil, wood, livestock,
wool, and leather goods. Finds of Cretan stirrup jars suggest that contacts were spread across the
Aegean. From the 13th century BCE there are also chamber tombs with benches and drains, some with
wall paintings and precious grave objects such as gold jewelry and bronze weapons. The end of this
period is marked by evidence of earthquake and fire damage.
Following the Dark Ages in Greece (c.1100 to 700 BCE), Thebes re-emerged as an influential Greek citystate and for the next four centuries the city would be a constant rival to Athens and Sparta for regional
dominance. In 480 BCE Thebes sided with Persia when Xerxes invaded Greece, and the city was a major
protagonist in the Peloponnesian War from 431 to 404 BCE, siding with Sparta against Athens.
In the 4th century BCE, two Theban leaders achieved long lasting fame: Pelopidas, who was the subject
of one of Plutarch’s Lives, and the brilliant military strategist and student of philosophy, Epaminondas.
These two generals, Pelopidas campaigning in central and northern Greece and Epaminondas in the
Peloponnese, were largely responsible for Thebes’ greatest period of regional dominance.
Boeotian Pithos from Thebes
An unusual feature of the Theban army was the Sacred Band. This was a military corps founded by
Gorgidas and consisting of 300 infantrymen linked in homoerotic pairs, the idea being soldiers would
fight better if their lover were at their side. The Sacred Band, used for the first time as an independent
unit by Pelopidas, defeated the Spartans at the Battle of Tegyra in 375 BCE. Even more decisive was the
Battle of Leuktra in 371 BCE, where the Spartans were roundly defeated and where the victory
monument set up by the Thebans is still visible today. This was sweet revenge for Sparta’s imposition of
a garrison at Thebes from 379 to 376 BCE. Victorious, Thebes created a new Arcadian capital at
Megalopolis and was now firmly established as the most powerful city-state in Greece. Incidentally, a
young Philip, the future king of Macedonia, was captured by Pelopidas whilst campaigning in Thessaly
and taken hostage to democratic Thebes where he studied military tactics. The Sacred Band remained
undefeated until 338 BCE and the invasion of the Macedonians.
In 364 BCE Pelopidas was killed (but victorious) in the Battle of Kynoskephalai which forced Macedonia
to join the Theban led Boiotian League. Shortly after, in 362 BCE, Epaminondas fell in the indecisive
Battle of Mantinea against a Spartan and Athenian led alliance. With the loss of their two great generals,
Theban dominance began to wane and Sparta and Athens would become the two major players in
Greece. In 338 BCE Thebes joined old rivals Athens and Corinth in order to face the invading Philip (now
King) of Macedonia in the Battle of Chaironeia. Thebes ended on the losing side, though, and Philip
established a Macedonian garrison in the city. However, Thebes - noted for its scheming against local
rivals - was even more harshly treated by Philip’s heir, Alexander, who destroyed the city and sold the
population into slavery.
Mycenae
Mycenae was a fortified late Bronze Age city located between two hills on the Argolid plain of the
Peloponnese, Greece. The acropolis today dates from between the 14th and 13th century BCE when the
Mycenaean civilization was at its peak of power, influence and artistic expression.
IN MYTHOLOGY
In Greek mythology the city was founded by Perseus, who gave the site its name either after his sword
scabbard (mykes) fell to the ground and was regarded as a good omen or as he found a water spring
near a mushroom (mykes). Perseus was the first king of the Perseid dynasty which ended with Eurytheus
(instigator of Hercules' famous twelve labours). The succeeding dynasty was the Atreids, whose first
king, Atreus, is traditionally believed to have reigned around 1250 BCE. Atreus’ son Agamemnon is
believed to have been not only king of Mycenae but of all of the Archaean Greeks and leader of their
expedition to Troy to recapture Helen. In Homer’s account of the Trojan War in the Iliad, Mycenae (or
Mykene) is described as a ‘well-founded citadel’, as ‘wide-wayed’ and as ‘golden Mycenae’, the latter
supported by the recovery of over 15 kilograms of gold objects recovered from the shaft graves in the
acropolis.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Situated on a rocky hill (40-50 m high) commanding the surrounding plain as far as the sea 15 km away,
the site of Mycenae covered 30,000 square metres and has always been known throughout history,
although the surprising lack of literary references to the site suggest it may have been at least partially
covered. First excavations were begun by the Archaeological Society of Athens in 1841 CE and then
famously continued by Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 CE who discovered the magnificent treasures of
Grave Circle A. The archaeological excavations have shown that the city has a much older history than
the Greek literary tradition described.
ATREUS’ SON AGAMEMNON IS BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN NOT ONLY KING OF MYCENAE BUT OF ALL OF
THE ARCHAEAN GREEKS AND LEADER OF THEIR EXPEDITION TO TROY.
Inhabited since Neolithic times, it is not until c. 2100 BCE that the first walls, pottery finds (including
imports from the Cycladic islands) and pit and shaft graves with higher quality grave goods appear.
These, taken collectively, suggest a greater importance and prosperity in the settlement.
From c. 1600 BCE there is evidence of an elite presence on the acropolis: high quality pottery, wall
paintings, shaft graves and an increase in the surrounding settlement with the construction of large
tholos tombs. From the 14th century BCE the first large-scale palace complex is built (on three artificial
terraces), as is the celebrated tholos tomb, the Treasury of Atreus, a monumental circular building with
corbelled roof reaching a height of 13.5 m and 14.6 m in diameter and approached by a long walled and
unroofed corridor 36 m long and 6m wide. Fortification walls, of large roughly worked stone blocks,
surrounding the acropolis (of which the north wall is still visible today), flood management structures
such as damns, roads, Linear B tablets and an increase in pottery imports (fitting well with theories of
contemporary Mycenaean expansion in the Aegean) illustrate the culture was at its zenith.
Lion's Gate at Mycenae
ARCHITECTURE
The large palace structure built around a central hall or Megaron is typical of Mycenaean palaces. Other
features included a secondary hall, many private rooms and a workshop complex. Decorated stonework
and frescoes and a monumental entrance, the Lion Gate (a 3 m x 3 m square doorway with an 18-ton
lintel topped by two 3 m high heraldic lions and a column altar), added to the overall splendour of the
complex. The relationship between the palace and the surrounding settlement and between Mycenae
and other towns in the Peloponnese is much discussed by scholars. Concrete archaeological evidence is
lacking but it seems likely that the palace was a centre of political, religious and commercial power.
Certainly, high value grave goods, administrative tablets, pottery imports and the presence of precious
materials deposits such as bronze, gold and ivory would suggest that the palace was, at the very least,
the hub of a thriving trade network.
The first palace was destroyed in the late 13th century, probably by earthquake and then (rather poorly)
repaired. A monumental staircase, the North Gate, and a ramp were added to the acropolis and the
walls were extended to include the Perseia spring within the fortifications. The spring was named after
the city’s mythological founder and was reached by an impressive corbelled tunnel (or syrinx) with 86
steps leading down 18m to the water source. It is argued by some scholars that these architectural
additions are evidence for a preoccupation with security and possible invasion. This second palace was
itself destroyed, this time with signs of fire. Some rebuilding did occur and pottery finds suggest a
degree of prosperity returned briefly before another fire ended occupation of the site until a brief
revival in Hellenistic times. With the decline of Mycenae, Argos became the dominant power in the
region. Reasons for the demise of Mycenae and the Mycenaean civilization are much debated with
suggestions including natural disaster, over-population, internal social and political unrest or invasion
from foreign tribes.
Death Mask of Agamemnon
ARTIFACTS
Celebrated artefacts from Mycenae include five magnificent beaten gold burial masks (one being
incorrectly attributed to Agamemnon by Schliemann), gold diadems, carved rings, cups and a lion head
rhyton. A magnificent bronze and gold rhyton in the form of a bull’s head, large bronze swords and
daggers with richly inlaid scenes on their blades, ivory sculpture and fragments of fresco also give
testimony to the quality of craftsmanship and wealth of ‘golden Mycenae’.