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Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
2-1
Introduction
This module will introduce you to the potential food
safety hazards that can be associated with seafood
products. Please refer to Chapter 2 (pages 11-26)
in the 3rd edition of the blue HACCP Training
Curriculum manual for additional information.
There are 32 pages and 8 questions in this Module.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
2-2
Food Safety Hazards
HACCP is a food safety control program designed to prevent, eliminate or reduce
food safety hazards to an acceptable level. In this module we will discuss the
potential food safety hazards that can be associated with both seafood products
and processing. Food safety hazards are categorized in three classes:
BIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL and PHYSICAL. Each one will be discussed separately
in this module.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
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Definition of Food Safety Hazards
Food safety hazards, if not properly controlled, can cause illness or injury to the
person who eats the food. As previously mentioned, the hazards that are
associated with food and food processing have been categorized in three classes:
biological, chemical or physical hazards.
Some hazards are species related because they are likely to be present in certain
types of fish or shellfish. Other hazards are process related because the hazard
may become incorporated into the product due to equipment or handling
procedures.
Types of Hazards
Biological hazards include harmful bacteria, viruses or parasites. Chemical
hazards include compounds that can cause illness or injury due to immediate
and/or long-term exposure such as toxins found in fish or shellfish. Physical
hazards include foreign objects that can cause harm when eaten such as metal
or glass.
Hazard Analysis
Hazards are evaluated during what is called a hazard analysis. During the
hazard analysis it's determined whether a particular hazard needs to be included
in a HACCP plan. Only hazards that directly affect the safety of the product need
to be included in a HACCP plan. This evaluation of hazards will be discussed in
detail in Module 5. This module will, however, provide an overview of the kinds of
hazards that are associated with seafood products and food processing, and will
help you to recognize what is and is not appropriate to control with HACCP.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
2-4
Undesirable conditions or contaminants that are
NOT food safety hazards
There are a number of conditions or contaminants that are undesirable in food,
but do not necessarily represent a safety hazard. That's because they're not likely
to cause illness or injury to the person who eats the food. These conditions can be
controlled by a company's standard operating procedures (SOP's), and should
NOT be included in a HACCP plan as they don't affect the safety of the food.
Examples
Some examples of these undesirable conditions that are not food safety hazards
are:
• Product quality or spoilage, unless the spoilage results in a food safety
problem,
• Hair, insects, or other filth,
• Economic fraud or misrepresentation, and
• Failure to meet other regulatory standards such as Good Manufacturing
Practices and sanitation.
Again, these conditions still need to be addressed and controlled by processors,
but they don't need to be part of a HACCP plan system for controlling food safety.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
2-5
Food Safety Hazards
Now, let's cover the different categories of hazards, starting with biological.
Definition:
Biological hazards can be found in both raw and processed products. They're
living microorganisms or parasites that can make people sick if they're present in
food. Many types of microorganisms, those organisms that are too small to see
with the naked eye, live everywhere in our environment.
Microorganisms are classified into various groups. Some microorganisms
can cause illness, while others spoil food. Some can even be beneficial in some
foods.
Some types of bacteria, yeast and molds actually grow in food and can produce
certain chemicals or "by-products" that give some foods beneficial characteristics.
Other microorganisms can cause spoilage. Some of their "by-products" can cause
food to look, taste, and smell bad. Spoilage is undesirable but is normally NOT
associated with safety.
Other microorganisms are considered food safety hazards because they can cause
infections or produce "by-products" called toxins that can make people sick.
First let's take a look at some of the microorganisms that are considered
beneficial.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
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Food Safety Hazards
Beneficial microorganisms produce desirable properties and components in foods.
These include: bacteria and fungi which can be either yeast or molds.
Bleu Cheese made with mold
Bacteria Cells
Certain yeast, molds and bacteria are used to make foods that we eat everyday
including beer, bread, wine, cheese, yogurt, soy sauce and salami. These foods
couldn't be made without introducing certain types of microorganisms that
produce the "by-products" necessary for the characteristic flavor and texture that
you would expect. Because these microorganisms do not cause illness, they are
not considered a food safety hazard. But as we said earlier, some microorganisms
do cause illness, let's take a look at those next.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
2-7
Food Safety Hazards
Microorganisms that can cause disease or illness are called pathogens—a word
that means "disease-causing". Pathogens are biological food safety hazards that
must be evaluated in a hazard analysis. If it's determined that a pathogen is
reasonably likely to occur at a level that will cause illness, this hazard would need
to be controlled in a HACCP plan. These biological hazards can be present in a
food product that "appears" to be of good quality with no obvious visual signs or
odors to indicate that the food is unsafe or "bad".
There are three types of pathogenic organisms that can be potential food safety
hazards. They are: bacteria, viruses and parasites. Let's take a look at each
one, starting with bacteria.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
2-8
Food Safety Hazards
Bacteria are single celled microorganisms that are too small to see with the
naked eye.
Bacteria live everywhere: in the air, dirt, fresh and salt water, on your skin and
hair and other body parts, and on both plants and animals. A few types of
bacteria are food safety hazards because they can cause illness and disease. To
control these bacteria we need to prevent them from getting into the food, and if
they are present to prevent them from growing and/or eliminate them. To do this,
you must understand their properties—how they grow, what they need to grow,
how they get into food, and how they make you sick. Let's find out!
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
2-9
How do Bacteria grow?
Bacteria do not grow and multiply the
same way as animals or humans.
They take in nutrients and reproduce
by dividing – one bacteria splits and
becomes two bacteria, two become
four, four become eight and so on.
Doubling can occur quickly if the
conditions – enough nutrients, proper
temperature, adequate moisture, etc.
- are suitable. Each type of bacteria
has its own preferred conditions for
growth. Under ideal conditions, many
types of bacteria can double every 20
minutes. Potentially, one bacteria can
multiply to more than 30,000 in five
hours and to more than 16 million in
eight hours. Controlling the conditions
needed for growth is an effective way
to control many bacterial food safety
hazards.
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What do bacteria need to grow?
Like all living things, bacteria need food, water and the proper
environment to live and grow. The food product itself supplies the food and
water needed for bacterial growth. Most seafood products provide an abundance
of food and water for growth. The exact environmental requirements can vary
from one type of bacteria to another. Most bacteria grow best within certain
ranges of temperature, and have specific requirements related to their need for
air, the proper amount of water, acid and salt. By controlling nutrients, water,
temperature and time, air, acidity, and salt, you can eliminate, control, or reduce
the rate at which bacteria grow.
Spores
Some types of bacteria have the ability to form spores when they are exposed to
conditions that they "do not like". Once bacteria form spores to survive, they will
not grow until conditions become favorable again. Spores are very resistant to
conditions of high heat, acid, or other chemicals that would kill most bacteria in
their normal state. These spores can create food safety hazards under certain
conditions. Controlling the spores requires preventing favorable conditions for
growth—keeping the temperature low or the acidity or salt content high will keep
them as spores that aren't harmful. An example of a type of spore forming
bacteria that is extremely hazardous is Clostridium botulinum, the bacteria that
causes botulism.
Optional
If you would like to learn more about specific requirements for bacterial growth, the next 3 pages
have more information on these requirements.
What bacteria need to grow and multiply
1. Food (nutrients)
2. Water (moisture)
3. Proper temperature
4. Time
5. Air, no air, minimal air
6. Proper acidity (pH)
7. Salt levels
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
2-10A
Food:
Food is essential for ALL living organisms. Bacteria need protein,
carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals - just like we do. Seafood is
a great food source for bacteria - it contains all of these nutrients
and plenty of water - a good environment for disease-causing
bacteria to grow. Some food preservation methods such as smoking,
drying, and freezing work by preventing the water and nutrients in
food from being used by bacteria.
Water or Moisture:
All bacteria need moisture, or water, in a "useable" or "available" form to grow and reproduce. Bacteria
use the water to take in food and to remove unwanted waste products. Water activity (aw) is one
measure of the available water in a food. The water activity scale runs from 0 to 1.0. The lower the
water activity, the less water is available in a form that can be used by bacteria. The water activity of
pure water is 1.0—thus the water activity of all foods falls below this number. However, many food
products, particularly meat, poultry, seafood and dairy products, have a water activity of 0.95–0.99.
Unfortunately, this is the optimum range for many of the spoilage and disease-causing bacteria. Most
fresh seafood products have a water activity above 0.98—perfect for bacterial growth!!! Pathogenic
bacteria do not grow well or produce toxin below 0.85 and most require 0.92 or above. Freezing,
drying, or salting are ways to reduce available water to bacteria, and slow down their growth.
Temperature:
Each type of bacteria grows best in a certain temperature range.
Not all bacteria have the same temperature requirements, but most
grow best between 40° F and 140° F, which is known as the
TEMPERATURE DANGER ZONE. Unfortunately, a few very harmful
disease-causing bacteria, like Listeria monocytogenes and
Clostridium botulinum Type E, can also grow slowly at refrigerated
temperatures. That's why proper refrigeration at temperatures as
close to 32° F as possible for unfrozen product is important - not
only for quality but for safety as well. Keeping products cold can
stop some bacteria from growing, but only slows down the rate of
growth for other bacteria. Freezing food and holding it at
temperatures below 0° F can stop bacterial growth. Temperatures
at the high end of the Danger Zone, above 140° F, can also be used
to prevent bacterial growth. Heating food to temperatures above
145° F can be used to kill bacteria. Some type of bacteria may be
more heat resistant than others. Cooking times and temperatures
used in processing must be designed to provide internal product
temperatures that ensure that pathogenic bacteria are killed.
140˚
40˚
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
Time:
Bacteria do not grow and multiply instantly. When enough food and
water is available as well as the proper temperature for growth, they
will multiply over time. This is why you need to consider both time and
temperature controls to keep products safe and of high quality. While
bacteria may differ in their optimum growth temperatures, a good rule
is to cool products quickly and keep them cold to minimize the amount
of time that food is held in the Danger Zone, the temperature range
most favorable for bacterial growth.
Air, No Air, or Minimal Air
Bacteria can be placed into three groups depending on whether or not
they need oxygen or air to grow. The first group must have oxygen to
grow. The second group can grow with or without oxygen, and the
third group cannot grow if oxygen is present.
Bacteria like Bacillus cereus can only grow if oxygen or air is present.
Many types of bacteria such as Listeria, Salmonella, Staphylococcus
and Vibrio can grow with or without air. Others, like the sporeforming bacteria, Clostridium botulinium Type E, can only grow
when no air is present. Since C. botulinum Type E is common in
the marine environment and grows best in the absence of air,
preservation techniques like vacuum-packing and modified
atmosphere packaging can be particularly hazardous. Other
controls that provide additional barriers to C. botulinium growth,
like low temperatures and additives such as salt or nitrates,
must be used to ensure that the bacteria that causes botulism
does not grow.
2-10B
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
2-10C
Acidity:
The acidity of a food is also important for bacterial growth.
Acidity is measured using what is known as the pH scale which
Acidic
Neutral
Alkaline
goes from 0 to14, where pH 7.0 is neutral, a pH less than 7 is
0
7
14
acidic and a pH greater than 7.0 is basic or alkaline. Foods with
a pH close to 7.0 are ideal for most bacterial growth. Every
pH Scale
microorganism has a minimum, optimum and maximum pH
for growth. The optimum growth range is about 6.0 to 7.5, but
growth can occur slowly at lower or higher pH levels. A pH of
4.6 and below or a pH above 11 will prevent pathogen growth.
A pH 4.6 is used as a divider between what we call acid and what we call low acid foods. Many fruits,
such as peaches, oranges and apples are acid foods as their pH is below 4.6. Many vegetables, meats
and fish have a pH above 4.6 making them low-acid foods. There are some exceptions, but most fresh
seafood has a pH above 6.0 - putting it in the optimal range for bacterial growth.
Some foods start out as a low acid food and are then processed in such a way that they become an acid
food. An example is pickled fish which is produced by adding vinegar to lower the pH and slow down
the growth of spoilage and disease causing bacteria. Fermented products like fish sauce depend on
non-harmful microorganisms to produce acid to lower the pH and achieve the same effect.
Salt:
The amount of salt in food can also affect bacterial growth. For most types of bacteria, growth slows
down as the salt content increases. However, there are some types of bacteria that can grow at high
salt levels. A salt level of 10% or higher is needed to inhibit the growth of most types of bacteria that
cause illness, although some pathogens can grow at much higher salt levels. Flavor is a consideration
when using salt as a preservative, and foods could get too salty to eat. Control of bacterial growth in
foods is usually achieved by using lower levels of salt in combination with refrigeration or other barriers
that inhibit the growth of bacteria. For example, with smoked products, minimum levels of salt (3.5%)
in combination with smoking, cooling and cold storage are required to control pathogens that cause
botulism and staphylococcus intoxication.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
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Sources of Bacteria
Bacteria are found everywhere in the environment - air, soil, and water. Bacteria
are on the outer surfaces and in the digestive tract of all fish and shellfish.
Processing plants and all the equipment and utensils in them are prime areas for
bacteria because of the abundance of nutrients and water. A big contributor for
bacterial contamination are people - as bacteria is present on their skin, hands,
hair and in their respiratory and digestive tract. Good sanitation practices
including proper employee practices along with the use of high quality raw
materials are used to minimize the potential for finished food products to become
contaminated with bacteria. Processing procedures such as refrigeration, time/
temperature controls, cooking, adding salt, and drying or removing water, are
used to minimize bacterial growth or to kill them altogether.
Examples
The following are some examples of how bacteria can contaminate food:
• Bacteria may be naturally present on fish or shellfish when they are
harvested.
• Bacteria from the processing facility can contaminate fish or shellfish after
they are harvested.
• Cross contamination can occur when bacteria from food products or food
contact surfaces are transferred to another product when the products touch,
drip or splash onto each other.
• Bacteria from the plant or dirty food handling equipment or utensils that are
not properly cleaned and sanitized can contaminate products.
• People can contaminate products because of poor personal hygiene practices,
not washing hands properly, or using poor food handling practices.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
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How Bacteria Cause Illness
Bacteria can cause illness in three ways: by
infection, intoxication or toxicoinfection.
A foodborne infection occurs when the
microorganism itself is ingested with the food. The
organism establishes itself in the host's body and
multiplies. Since the infection is a consequence of
growth in the body, the time from ingestion until
symptoms occur is relatively long.
A foodborne intoxication occurs when specific pathogenic bacteria grow in the
food and release toxins into the food that is subsequently consumed. It is the
toxin that makes the person sick. Since the illness is a consequence of absorption
of the preformed toxin by the intestinal tract, and not microbial growth in the
host's body, symptoms of intoxication have a much more rapid onset than
foodborne infection.
A third type is called toxicoinfection, which combines the two. Toxicoinfections
are characterized by bacteria that are non-invasive and cause illness by producing
toxins while growing in the human intestines. The times of onset are generally,
but not always, longer than those for intoxications, but less than those for
infections.
Examples
Examples of bacterial pathogens that have been associated with seafood products are:
Clostridium botulinium (forms spores and a toxin)
Listeria monocytogenes
Salmonella
Vibrio species
Staphylococcus aureus
Optional
To see a table from the FDA Hazards and Controls Guide that summarizes the growth requirements
for specific types of bacterial pathogens go to pages 279-283 in the third edition of the FDA Hazards
Guide.
To see in-depth information on bacterial pathogens in food from the FDA Bad Bug Book visit this
web site: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/intro.html.
To see in-depth information on bacterial pathogens and process controls from the Seafood HACCP
Alliance Compendium visit this web site: http://www-seafood.ucdavis.edu/haccp/compendium/
compend.htm.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
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Food Safety Hazards
Virus Hazards
Like other microorganisms, viruses exist in many places in our environment, but
unlike bacteria, they cannot grow in food. When viruses are in food, they are
simply there and do not replicate or increase in number. Viruses are extremely
persistent and may remain in a contaminated food for long periods of time. Many
viruses can survive for a long time under harsh conditions such as freezing.
To reproduce, viruses must invade a living cell – this means you!! Of the many
different types of viruses in the environment, only some of them can infect
humans.
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Foods are contaminated with viruses in four major ways
People who have been infected with viruses can carry them in their digestive tract
for a long time with no signs of illness. They excrete the viruses when they go to
the bathroom and can transmit them to food when they don't wash and
sanitize their hands properly.
Sewage polluted estuarine waters can contaminate fish and shellfish. Oysters,
clams and mussels, which are filter feeders, entrap the viruses from the water in
their mucous membranes and transfer them to their digestive tract. If the shellfish
is consumed whole and raw, so are the viruses. This is the reason why certified
shellfish harvest areas are evaluated for sources of sewage pollution or fecal
contamination caused by run-off from the land.
Contaminated irrigation water can deposit viruses on the surface of fruits and
vegetables. Again, people become infected when they consume contaminated
foods raw.
Viruses can be introduced if contaminated drinking water is used to wash or
transport food, or is used as an ingredient in the food, or if you just drink it!
And last, viruses can be added to food by infected food handlers with fecal
material on their hands - a result of poor personal hygiene practices.
Examples
Examples of common seafood-related viral pathogens are:
Hepatitis A Virus and
Norwalk-Like Agent
Optional
To see additional information about viruses from the Seafood HACCP Alliance training manual,
turn to page 183 in the Seafood HACCP Alliance training manual "Blue Book".
To see additional information about viruses from the FDA Bad Bug Book visit this web site:
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/intro.html
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
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Food Safety Hazards
Parasite Hazards
Parasites are organisms that need to live on or within a host to survive. There are
thousands of different kinds of parasites, but less than 100 different kinds are
known to infect people. Two kinds of parasites are known to infect people through
food and water: worms and protozoa. Parasitic worms can vary in size from not
visible to several feet long. Parasitic protozoa are single celled animals that
cannot be seen without a microscope.
Some types of parasites, like parasitic worms, occur naturally in certain species of
fish. As a result, humans get infected when they eat food that contains a living
parasite. Other parasites are transmitted through food or water that is
contaminated by fecal material that is shed by
infected hosts. Parasites can contaminate food
directly from infected people who do not follow
good personal hygiene or hand
washing practices.
Contamination can also occur
through water that has been
contaminated with parasites
from fecal material because of
improper disposal of waste,
insufficiently treated sewage, or
runoff from the land.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
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Control of Parasites
Some fish species are excellent hosts for parasites. For these species you can
expect that they are likely to be present and if the product is eaten raw, there is a
good chance of becoming infected. Parasites can be controlled in two ways: by
heat or proper freezing. For heating, it is reasonable to assume that normal
cooking will kill the parasites. FDA recommends three freezing options to kill
parasites; freezing at -4° F or below for 7 days OR freezing at -31° F or below until
solid and then holding for 15 hours OR freezing at -31° F or below until solid and
them holding at -4° F or below for 24 hours.
Examples
Examples of common parasitic worms in seafood include:
Roundworms such as cod worm (Pseudoterranova) and herring worm (Anasakis)
Tapeworms
Examples of parasitic protozoa that could contaminate seafood products from
water or other sources include:
Giardia lamblia
Cryptosporidium parvum
Entamoeba histolitica
Optional
To find out which species of fish are likely to have a parasite hazard go to pages 16-37 in the third
edition of the FDA Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guide or click here.
To learn more about the hazard of parasites and proper controls go to page 65 in the third edition
of the FDA Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guide.
To learn more about the hazard of parasites and proper controls from the FDA Bad Bug Book visit
this web site: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/intro.html
To learn more about the hazard of parasites from the Seafood HACCP Alliance Compendium of
Processing Methods visit this web site: http://www-seafood.ucdavis.edu/haccp/compendium/
compend.htm
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
2-17
Check Your Knowledge 1
Now you need to return to Module 2 via the
Internet.
Click through the text pages until you get to the
Check Your Knowledge page (page 2-17). Submit
your answers before moving on to page 2-18.
Good Luck!
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
2-18
Food Safety Hazards
What Are Chemical Hazards?
Chemical contamination of food products can occur at any stage of food
processing. Certain chemicals can be considered food safety hazards, but not all
chemicals are hazardous. For example, when pesticides are used properly on
fruits and vegetables they are helpful in eliminating unwanted pests and
protecting crops. But if these same pesticides are not used properly or
unapproved pesticides are used, they can become a potential risk to the
consumer. The presence of a chemical may not always mean there is a hazard as
the amount of the chemical may determine whether it's a hazard or not. Exposure
to some chemicals may cause immediate symptoms and other chemicals may
require exposure over prolonged periods to have a toxic effect.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
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Chemical Hazards Can Be Controlled by
As important as it is to understand chemical hazards, it's equally important for
you to know how to control those hazards. Four of the most common ways to
control chemical hazards are by:
• Controlling the type and amount of chemicals added to foods.
• Preventing accidental contamination or spills.
• Using food or ingredients not contaminated with chemicals.
• Preventing conditions that allow chemical hazards to develop in food.
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Food Safety Hazards
Types of Chemical Hazards
In order for you to identify the chemical hazard and the appropriate control it is
important to understand what a chemical hazard is. Chemical hazards can be
separated into three category's: Naturally occurring chemicals; Intentionally
added chemicals; and Unintentionally or incidentally added chemicals.
Let's take a look at each one.
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Food Safety Hazards
Finfish Toxins
Shellfish Toxins
Naturally Occurring Chemicals (including allergens)
Naturally occurring chemicals, including allergens, are normally found in a variety
of different plants, animals or microorganisms. They can be present in food or
food ingredients prior to harvest - or they can develop in foods after they are
harvested. Even though some naturally occurring chemical toxins are created by
microorganisms and are therefore biological in origin, the toxins are traditionally
categorized as chemical hazards. Allergens are naturally occurring chemicals
present in food that cause an allergic reaction in some people after the food is
eaten. There are two (2) types of naturally occurring chemicals in seafood: Finfish
toxins and shellfish toxins. Here's what you need to know about each type.
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
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Food Safety Hazards
Finfish Toxins
Shellfish Toxins
Finfish Toxins
There are two types of toxins that may be considered a chemical hazard in certain
types of finfish. Ciguatera toxin is considered a naturally occurring toxin as it
occurs naturally in some fish species that live in tropical reef areas.
Scombrotoxin is not considered a naturally occurring toxin, but is still considered
a chemical hazard. Scombrotoxin or histamine can form in some fish species
when they aren't cooled down properly after harvest or held properly during
processing and storage. Let's take a look at each one separately.
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Ciguatera toxin is a chemical hazard associated with tropical reef fish species
such as barracuda, jacks, king, mackerel and large groupers and snappers that
results in a fish poisoning syndrome known as ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP). The
toxin is produced when naturally occurring marine algae accumulates in the fish.
Ciguatera toxin can't be eliminated either from the environment or from the fish.
Therefore, the hazard is controlled by harvesting the fish in waters that have not
been associated with a natural toxin problem.
Barracuda
Grouper
Optional
To learn more about the Ciguatera toxin hazard go to pages 73–74 in the third edition of the FDA
Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guide.
To find out which species of fish are susceptible to this hazard go to pages 16-37 in the third
edition of the FDA Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guide.
To learn more about the hazard of ciguatera fish poisoning and proper controls from the FDA Bad
Bug Book visit this web site: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/intro.html
To learn more about the hazard of ciguatera fish poisoning from the Seafood HACCP Alliance
Compendium of Processing Methods visit this web site: http://www-seafood.ucdavis.edu/haccp/
compendium/compend.htm
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
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Scombrotoxin is a chemical hazard associated with fish species such as tuna,
mackerel, bluefish, mahi-mahi, amberjack, herring, and escolar. Scombrotoxin
formation in these fish is a result of time/temperature abuse anywhere from
harvesting to the consumer. Scrombrotoxin can't be eliminated once the fish has
been time/temperature abused. Therefore, the hazard is controlled by rapid
chilling after death and then keeping the fish cold throughout processing and to
the consumer.
Bluefish
Mackerel
Tuna
Optional
To learn more about the Scombrotoxin (Histamine) hazard go to page 83 in the third edition of the
FDA Fish and Fisheries Products Hazards and Controls Guide.
To find out which species of fish are susceptible to this hazard go to pages 16-37 in the third
edition of the FDA Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guide.
To learn more about the hazard of histamine or scombrotoxin and proper controls from the FDA
Bad Bug Book visit this web site: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/intro.html
To learn more about the hazard of histamine or scombrotoxin from the Seafood HACCP Alliance
Compendium of Processing Methods visit this web site: http://www-seafood.ucdavis.edu/haccp/
compendium/compend.htm
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
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Food Safety Hazards
Shellfish Toxins
Finfish Toxins
Shellfish Toxins
There are four recognized food poisoning syndromes in the United States that are
associated with shellfish toxins. They are paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP),
neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP), and
amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP).
The toxins are produced by
naturally occurring marine algae
that concentrates in filter feeding
shellfish such as clams, oysters,
and mussels. The toxins cannot be
eliminated if they have
accumulated in the shellfish.
Therefore, the hazard is most
commonly controlled by
harvesting the shellfish from
waters that have not been closed
because of a natural toxin
problem.
Optional
To learn more about Shellfish toxin hazards go to pages 73-74 in the third edition of the FDA Fish
and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guide.
To find out which species of shellfish are susceptible to this hazard go to pages 38-44 in the third
edition of the FDA Fish and Fisheries Products Hazards and Controls Guide.
To learn more about the hazard of shellfish toxins and proper controls from the FDA Bad Bug Book
visit this web site: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/intro.html
To learn more about the hazard of shellfish toxins from the Seafood HACCP Alliance Compendium
of Processing Methods visit this web site: http://www-seafood.ucdavis.edu/haccp/compendium/
compend.htm
Seafood HACCP Alliance Training Course
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Intentionally Added Chemicals
Food Safety Hazards
Intentionally added chemicals are those added to food at some point during food
processing, or distribution. They can serve a variety of important functions such
as helping to preserve the food, maintaining or adding color, or enhancing the
foods nutritional composition. Intentionally added chemicals are safe if they are
used at established levels but can be dangerous when those levels are exceeded.
Intentionally added chemicals are typically controlled through proper food
labeling to alert consumers who are sensitive to avoid them. Let's take a look at
food and color additives.
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Types of Intentionally Added Chemicals
Food Safety Hazards
Allergens and Additives
Certain food and color additives can cause an allergic-type reaction in consumers
and are thus considered a potential food safety hazard. Therefore, additives must
be approved before they can be used in foods and food processors should review
the appropriate regulations for its status and any limitations before using a food
additive. This chemical hazard is controlled by properly labeling food to inform
consumers that food and color additives are present, and by controlling the
amount that is added to food.
Examples of Allergens and Additives Used in Seafood
Products
• Sulfites: Sulfites are used in foods to prevent color changes that can occur
in the pigments in certain foods. Sulfiting agents are sometimes used in the
on-board handling of shrimp and lobster tails to prevent the formation of
"black spot" a quality defect caused by the oxidation of pigments in their
shells.
• Color Additives: In some food products additives are used to add color to
the product. An example of an approved color additive is FD&C Yellow No. 5.
• Preservatives like sodium nitrite are used to prevent microbial growth in
some food products like smoked fish and bacon.
• Nutritional supplements like Vitamin A are sometimes added to food to
enhance their nutritional quality or to replace nutrients lost during
processing.
Optional
To learn more about allergens and additives go to page 237 in the third edition of the FDA Fish and
Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guide.
To see a partial list of prohibited substances (Part 189 of Title 21 of the Code of Federal
Regulations - "Substances Prohibited from Use in Human Food") visit this web site: http://
www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_99/21cfr189_99.html
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Food Safety Hazards
Unintentionally or Incidentally Added Chemicals
Chemicals can become part of a food without being intentionally added. These
incidental chemicals might already be in a food product or ingredient when it's
received. For example, certain seafood may contain small but legal residues of
approved antibiotics or environmental chemical contaminants like PCBs or
mercury. Packaging materials that are in direct contact with ingredients or the
product can be a source of incidental chemicals, such as sanitizers or inks. Most
incidental chemicals have no effect on food safety, and others are only a concern
if they are present in too high an amount. Incidental chemicals also include
accidental additions of prohibited substances such as poisons or insecticides that
may not be allowed at any level.
Examples of Incidental or Unintentional Added
Chemical Contaminants
Environmental Pollutants
Environmental pollutants like PCBs, mercury, cadmium etc. and agricultural
chemicals like pesticides and herbicides may accumulate in certain species of fish
or shellfish harvested from contaminated areas. Federal tolerances, action levels,
and guidance levels are established for some of the most toxic and persistent
contaminants in fish. These levels are used by states to determine health risks
and to close waters to commercial harvesting or issue consumption advisories to
sport fishermen. This chemical hazard is primarily a concern for fish harvested in
fresh waters or near shore coastal waters, and is not likely to be a concern for
fish harvested in deeper off shore ocean waters. Consumer health risks are
associated with long term exposure to these contaminants. The hazard is
controlled by harvesting or growing fish in waters that are not contaminated.
Cooking and other processing procedures cannot be used to control this hazard.
Optional
To learn more about environmental chemical contaminants go to page 105 in the third edition of
the FDA Fish and Fisheries Products Hazards and Controls Guide.
To find out which species of fish and shellfish may be susceptible to this hazard go to pages 16-44
in the third edition of the FDA Fish and Fisheries Products Hazards and Controls Guide.
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Aquaculture Drugs
Aquaculture drugs are sometimes used to treat or prevent disease, stimulate
reproduction, or tranquilize fish. Drugs must be approved before they can be
used, and they must be used according to instructions. Unregulated drugs or drug
use can be a potential human health hazard. The hazard is controlled by assuring
that growers use only approved drugs and the drugs are used properly.
Optional
To learn more about aquaculture drugs go to page 127 in the third edition of the FDA Fish and
Fisheries Products Hazards and Controls Guide.
Cleaning and Maintenance Chemicals
Cleaning and maintenance chemicals like acids, caustics, sanitizers,
lubricants, paints etc. can cause chemical burns or may be toxic if present in food.
These chemicals would be most likely to pose a hazard as a result of accidents,
spills or inadequate maintenance of equipment or facilities. Sanitation procedures
that address the use and proper storage of chemicals and the construction and
maintenance of facilities and equipment used in food handling or processing
operations are generally used to control this type of chemical hazard.
Optional
To see the current Good Manufacturing Practices (Part 110 of Title 21 of the Code of Federal
Regulations) see page 259 of the Seafood HACCP Alliance training manual "Blue Book".
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Check Your Knowledge 2
Now you need to return to Module 2 via the
Internet.
Click through the text pages until you get to the
Check Your Knowledge page (page 2-30). Submit
your answers before moving on to page 2-31.
Good Luck!
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Food Safety Hazards
What are Physical Hazards?
Physical hazards include any potentially harmful extraneous matter not normally
found in food. When a consumer mistakenly eats the foreign material or object, it
can cause choking, injury or other adverse health effects. Physical hazards are the
most commonly reported consumer complaints because the injury occurs
immediately or soon after eating, and the source of the hazard is often easy to
identify.
Physical Hazards can be controlled by:
• Preventing foreign objects from getting into food.
• Using metal detectors or other techniques to detect hazards in food.
Types of materials that can be physical hazards in foods.
Metal or metal fragments can get into food from food processing or handling
equipment like saws or mixers that have metal blades, wire mesh conveyor belts,
screens, can openers and portion control equipment. Other sources of metal
fragments can come from buckshot, wire, staples, building materials, and
employees. Metal fragments can cause a variety of injuries to consumers such as
cuts, punctures, or broken teeth. This hazard is controlled by preventing or
minimizing equipment malfunctions and using monitoring tools such as metal
detectors when necessary.
Glass and other foreign material can get into food from containers like glass jars,
light bulbs that explode, or other objects from the plant or plant workers. Glass and
other materials can physically harm consumers by causing cuts, bleeding, or
choking. Preventing contamination is the most effective way to control these
hazards.
Bones in fish are generally considered a quality defect rather than a food safety
hazard even though they can cause physical injury to the consumer. The reason is
that bones are a normal part of the product and not a foreign material like metal or
glass that is not normally part of the product. Processors have a responsibility to
minimize uncontrollable quality defects but under normal conditions they cannot be
completely eliminated.
Optional
To learn more about the physical hazard of metal inclusion go to page 249 in the third edition of
the FDA Fish and Fisheries Products Hazards and Controls Guide.
To learn more about the physical hazard of glass inclusion go to page 259 in the third edition of the
FDA Fish and Fisheries Products Hazards and Controls Guide
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Check Your Knowledge 3
Now you need to return to Module 2 via the
Internet.
Click through the text pages until you get to the
Check Your Knowledge page (page 2-32).
Submit your answers before moving on to
Module 3.
Good Luck!