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Brooke Gomez, Eliot Lopez M.S.,
Chwee-Lye Chng Ph.D. & Mark Vosvick Ph.D.
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
•College
life is stressful. Young
college students must adapt to a
host of behavioral, academic and
social challenges that often lead to
low self esteem, loneliness, guilt and
risky sexual behaviors (Elkins, D.
Forrester, S. & Noël-Elkins, A. 2011).
•The
stressful environment of college
life can undermine self-esteem in
students, particularly those without
strong coping skills. Students may
turn to risky sexual and drug
behaviors to escape from the pain of
low self-esteem (McNair, Carter &
Williams, 1998).
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
•Loneliness,
a common emotion among
students experiencing stress, contributes to
risky sex (Johnson, E. 2007). Torres and GoreFelton (2007) postulate that risky sex is used as
a means to cope with the anxiety created by
loneliness.
•Students
who engage in sexual behaviors on
college campuses in response to loneliness
sometimes do so in violation of personal moral
codes, resulting in sex guilt. Mosher and Cross
(1971) found that college students who report
high levels of sex guilt were less sexually
experienced than those not as guilty. To date,
research reveals that sex guilt and risky sex are
negatively correlated (Stuewig et al., 2009).
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
Transactional Model of Stress and Coping
(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984)
Challenge
Stress
Positive Stress
Primary
Appraisal
Negative Stress;
Increased Risk
Threat
Secondary
Appraisal
Positive Stress
Reappraisal
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
•Stress
is positively associated with sexual risk.
•Self-esteem
•Loneliness
•Sex
is negatively associated with sexual risk.
is positively associated with sexual risk.
guilt is negatively associated with sexual risk.
•Stress,
self-esteem, loneliness and sex guilt make up a
significant proportion of the variance in sexual risk.
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
•Participants
were recruited through the use of
flyers at the University of North Texas.
•Students
received extra credit for their
psychology classes as an incentive.
•Participants
were required to be at least 18
years of age and fluent in English.
•IRB
approval was obtained and participants
signed informed consent.
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
N= 504
Variable
N
%
M(SD)
Range
Female
383
76%
African American
104
20.6%
European
American
289
57.3%
Latino/a
47
9.3%
Other
64
12.8%
Age (years)
21.1(4.93)
18-56
Education (years)
13.9(1.75)
11-22
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•Participants
filled out
electronic, self-report
surveys.
•We
used univariate
analysis, bivariate analysis
and a hierarchical linear
regression analysis to
analyze our data.
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
Perceived Stress Scale
(Cohen, Kamarck & Mermelstein, 1983; α=.84)
•10
item measure on a 5 point likert-type scale from 0 (Never) to
4 (Very Often)
•Higher
scores indicate higher stress
Item examples include “In the last month, how often have you
been able to control irritations in your life?” and “In the past
month how often have you felt nervous and ‘stressed?’”
•
•Demonstrates
concurrent and predictive validity (Cohen,
Kamarck & Mermelstein, 1983)
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
(Rosenberg, Schooler, & Schoenbach, 1989; α=.92)
•11
item measure on a 4 point likert-type scale from 1
(strong agree) to 4 (strongly disagree)
•Higher
scores indicate higher self-esteem
•Item
examples include “I am able to do things as well as
other people” and “I take a positive attitude toward myself”
•Demonstrates
concurrent, predictive and construct validity
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
UCLA Loneliness Scale
(Russell, 1996; α=.91)
•10 item measure on a 4 point likert-type scale from 1 (I
often feel this way) to 4 (I never feel this way)
•Higher
scores indicate higher loneliness
•Item
examples include “How often do you feel you cannot
tolerate being so alone?” and “How often do you feel
completely alone?”
•Demonstrates
construct validity
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
Revised Mosher Guilt Inventory
(Mosher, 1998; α=.90 )
Sex guilt subscale: .88
•114 items, measured on 7 point likert type scale from 0 (Not at
all true of/for me) to 6 (Extremely true of/for me)
•Higher
scores indicate higher guilt
•Item
examples include “Sex relations before marriage are
wrong and immoral” and “Masturbation should not be practiced”
•Demonstrates
construct validity
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
Sexual Risk Questionnaire
(Kalichman et. al, 2000)
•37
item inventory
•Higher
scores indicate higher sexual risk
•Measured
by selecting either “yes” or “no”
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
Univariate
Mean(SD)
Possible
Range
Actual
Range
Calculated α
Stress
19.3(6.19)
0-40
4-36
.85
Self-esteem
18.1(5.33)
10-40
10-33
.89
Loneliness
27.2(6.60)
0-40
10-40
.91
Sex guilt
99.0(45.33)
0-263
19-263
. 95
Sexual Risk
7.6(5.19)
0-37
0-25
-
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Bivariate
p<.05*, p<.001**
1.
1. Age
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
-
2.Gender
.08
-
3.Education
.30*
.13
-
4. Ethnicity
.11
.15
-.06
5. Stress
-.25**
.16*
-.12**
-.03
-
6. Self-esteem
-.15
.04
-.21**
.03
.03**
-
7. Loneliness
.05
.06
-.07
-.16*
-.21**
.40**
8. Sex Guilt
-.09
.18*
-.04
-.06
.14
.18
.16*
9. Sexual Risk
.21**
-.07
.11
.06
-.18*
-.18
.25** -.53**
-
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
-
Hierarchical Regression Analysis
Outcome variable: Negative Self-Image Stigma
IV
β
t
p
Tol
VIF
Sex guilt
-.45
-7.37
<.001
.90
1.1
Self-esteem
.02
.40
-
.90
1.1
Loneliness
-.44
-11.26
<.001
.91
1.1
Stress
.10
1.93
<.05
.91
1.1
Adj. r² = .23, (F (5, 498) = 31.1, p<.001
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
•Our
findings suggest that stress, loneliness and
sex guilt are important factors which should be
evaluated in college students, especially to reduce
risky sexual behaviors.
•Clinicians
should incorporate cognitive behavioral
therapy to reduce stress and loneliness, and
assess positive ways of coping with sex guilt.
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
•Some
responses may be influenced by self report
bias.
generalizability due to sample’s
demographics (ethnicity, locations, etc.).
•Limited
•Due
to cross sectional correlational design,
causation cannot be inferred.
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
We would like to thank the Center for
Psychosocial Health Research’s
members and faculty and the students
of the University of North Texas.
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
Center for Psychosocial Health Research
McNair, L., Carter, J. & Williams., M. (2008). Self-esteem,
gender and alcohol use: Relationships with HIV risk
perception and behaviors in college students.
Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy (Vol. 24).
Mosher, D. L., & Cross, H. J. (1971). Sex guilt and premarital
sexual experiences of college students. Journal Of
Consulting And Clinical Psychology, 36(1), 27-32.
doi:10.1037/h0030454
Torres, H. L., & Gore-Felton, C. (2007). Compulsivity,
substance use, and loneliness: The loneliness and
sexual risk model (LSRM). Sexual Addiction &
Compulsivity, 14(1), 63-75.
Center for Psychosocial Health Research