Download 01 Vocab - From Prehistoric to Historic

Chapter One Vocabulary: From Prehistoric to Historic
2 million
BCE to
Australopithecus
750,000
BCE
Australopithecus was the first hominid to stand upright allowing use
of arms for specialized tasks. Their brain size was only 35% that of
modern humans, but they were able to devise tools, speak language
and harness fire. In short they began to adapt nature for themselves
and not vice versa.
750,000
BCE to
200,000
BCE
Homo Erectus was the first true human. More sophisticated than
Australopithecus, Homo erectus had a brain size 75% that of modern
humans. Homo Erectus used fire more efficiently and created more
effective tools. They lived in groups and communities. They began to
spread beyond the African continent into the temperate zones
250,000
to
35,000
Direct human ancestor; larger brains probably made self-awareness
and reflective thought possible and gave them such an advantage
that they replaced Homo erectus. This provided a powerful edge for
survival in the natural world. Homo sapiens was thus able to adapt to
varying climatic conditions and to establish the species throughout
the world. They helped to cause or may alone have caused the
extinction of many animal species, especially some large mammals
such as mammoths, mastodons and large kangaroos.
Neanderthal
200,000
BCE to
35,000
BCE
Neanderthal peoples, who were Homo sapiens, flourished between
were the first humans to have left record of reflective thought.
Neanderthal archeological sites have been found in Europe and
Southwest Asia. Their reflective thought was revealed in their tombs
which held human remains buried with personal items, animal
bones, tools and flowers, all which show they had developed the
capacity for sophisticated emotions and deep feelings.
Homo
sapiens-sapiens
40,000
BCE to
present
Homo sapiens-sapiens; a sub-species of Homo sapiens and from
them come all modern humans. It is important to understand that
humanity did not develop like robots. There were many offshoots
that died out and much intermixing that characterized human
development.
Cro-Magnon
40,000
BCE to
10,000
BCE
Cro-Magnon peoples, the first true Homo sapiens sapiens, and who,
if dressed and groomed like us, would be indistinguishable from us.
Surviving Cro-Magnon artifacts include huts, cave paintings, carvings
and antler-tipped spears. Their tools suggest that they knew how to
make woven clothing. They constructed homes of rocks, clay, bones,
branches, and animal hide/fur. They used manganese and iron oxides
to paint pictures and may have created the first calendar around
15,000 years ago.
Modern Humans
10,000
to
present
Modern humans appear around 10,000 BCE with the Agricultural
Transition or Agricultural Revolution and the subsequent foundations
of the first true civilizations.
Homo erectus
Homo sapiens
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Lucy is the best known prehistoric individual. She was an Australopithecus who lived about 3.5
million years ago in east Africa, and her skeleton was discovered by archaeologists in 1974 in modernday Ethiopia.
Australopithecus means "Southern ape," and they were earliest species of hominids which flourished
in east Africa between four million and one million years ago. They walked upright on two legs,
fashioned crude stone tools by well-developed hands with opposable thumbs, had limited ability to
communicate verbally and probably used fire in later ages. They began to adapt nature for themselves
and not vice versa. About 750,000 years ago the Australophicines began to disappear and were
replaced by Homo erectus.
Homo-Erectus means “Upright walking human". They were a species of hominids who flourished in
east Africa between 1.5 million and two hundred thousand years ago. They possessed brains larger
than that of Australopithecus, fashioned more sophisticated tools, knew how to control fire and had
effective language skills. Between five hundred and two hundred thousand years ago, they spread to
North Africa and Eurasian landmass. They were replaced by Homo-Sapiens.
Homo-Sapiens means "Consciously thinking human". They were our direct ancestors, a species of
hominids, who possessed a large brain with a broad frontal region for conscious and reflective thought.
This remarkable intelligence provided a powerful edge for survival in the natural world. They used
refined tools for hunting and gathering and possessed remarkable intelligence and language skills,
which enabled them to adapt to widely varying environments. They helped to cause or may alone have
caused the extinction of many species, especially some large mammals such as mammoths, mastodons
and large kangaroos. Around one hundred thousand years ago, they spread throughout the eastern
hemisphere.
Neanderthal peoples were Homo sapiens who flourished in Europe, southwest Asia, Africa, and East
Asia between about 100 thousand to 35 thousand years ago; named after the site of the Neander valley
in southwest Germany; known for their careful, deliberate burial accompanied by ritual observances. It
is thought that many were absorbed into Homo Sapiens-Sapiens.
Homo Sapiens-Sapiens were human beings of fully modern type which first appeared on the earth
about 40,000 years ago. It is important to understand that humanity did not develop like robots. There
were many offshoots that died out and much intermixing that characterized human development.
Cro-Magnon peoples were Paleolithic peoples and the first human beings of the fully modern type;
appeared about 40 thousand years ago and displaced Neanderthal peoples; displayed a noticeable
interest in fashion, artistic expression, and a strong concern about fertility. If dressed like us, they
would appear indistinguishable from us.
Hunters and gatherers (sometimes called Foragers) were Paleolithic peoples like Cro-Magnon who
constantly moved about in pursuit of game and plants, although some groups established longenduring settlements where they resided for much of the year. Population density was very low since
extensive land areas were necessary to support groupings that probably numbered no more than twenty
to thirty. Life expectancy was about twenty to twenty-five years, with high mortality rates for women
in labor and children. Males hunted, fished, and protected the band. Women's gathered vital food
supplies and herbal medicines. Limited technological advances kept the scattered bands living in
precarious life-styles. Many scholars feel that male/female interdependence created a social
equality.
The Olmecs were the “Mother Culture” of Meso-America who, between 1200 and 400 BCE,
developed the first true complex civilization and grew maize (corn), beans and squash.
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Paleolithic means "Old stone age" and refers to a period of time which extended from the evolution of
the first hominids (4 million years ago) until about 12 thousand years ago. The Paleolithic would be
replaced by the Neolithic, but not everywhere at the same time or in the same ways.
Slash and burn was used by ancient people in forested areas, in which they cleared land and farmed it
until the land was exhausted – then they moved on to new lands, repeating the process.
Neolithic means "New stone age" and refers to the early stages of agricultural society, which for the
major civilizations started from about twelve thousand to six thousand years ago. As humans
experimented with grains they discovered and animals they domesticated (the dog actually found
them), they slowly found the advantages to settled existence. This is also called the Neolithic
Revolution or New Stone Age. It did not happen suddenly and many historians do not like the term
Neolithic Revolution, but prefer the term Neolithic Transition.
Population Effects of the progressing Neolithic Revolution and growth of cultures:
Year
10,000 BCE
9,000 BCE
8,000 BCE
7,000 BCE
6,000 BCE
5,000 BCE
Population
1,000,000
3,000,000
5,000,000
7,000,000
10,000,000
15,000,000
Mesolithic Era Begins
Mesopotamian Culture emerges
Chinese Culture emerges
Egyptian Culture emerges
Harappan Culture emerges
Year
4,000 BCE
3,000 BCE
2,000 BCE
1,000 BCE
500 BCE
1 BCE
Population
20,000,000
25,000,000
35,000,000
50,000,000
100,000,000
200,000,000
Pastoralism refers to a life style adopted by many peoples who lived in grassy lands like the Steppes
of Central Asia and represents an in between step between Neolithic Revolution and the Paleolithic
foraging.
Fluvial or incipient refers to four of the oldest civilizations to emerge out of the Neolithic Transistion
or Revolution. They are:
1. The oldest (at least 8,000BCE) is probably the Mesopotamian between the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers in modern Iraq, which became a center of wheat (millet) and barley production.
2. Second probably, was the Chinese along the Yellow River in Northern China, which also grew
wheat. (The rice growing southern Chinese along the Yangtze come later)
3. Third was the Indus River Valley Civilization or Harappan which settled along the Indus River in
modern Pakistan
4. Lastly was the Egyptian, the gift of the Nile, which grew up along the Nile River in Northern
Africa (both again raising millet and barley). Water from the rivers provided the moisture
necessary for large-scale farming.
Venus figurines: Small sculptures of women found in many Cro-Magnon sites; exaggerated sexual
features reflect a deep interest in fertility.
Mesopotamia: The Land between the Rivers
Sumerians were the earliest inhabitants of Mesopotamia who migrated to the land of Sumer (in the
southern half of Mesopotamia) as early as about 5000 B.C.E., where they created the first complex
society in about 3200 B.C.E.
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Sargon was a Mesopotamian ruler of the city-state of Akkad, in about 2334 B.C.E. His empire was the
first regional empire in Mesopotamia. At its high point, it embraced all of Mesopotamia, and its armies
had ventured as far a-field as the Mediterranean and Black Sea, but lasted only for a few generations
Babylonian Empire was a regional empire built by the Amorites and king Hammurabi in 1792
B.C.E. that dominated Mesopotamia until about 1600 B.C.E.; collapsed due to foreign invasions.
Hammurabi (reigned 1792-1750 B.C.E.) was the creator of Babylonian empire. He styled himself
"king of the four quarters of the world," relied on centralized bureaucratic rule and levied regular tax;
especially known for his codification of laws
Hammurabi’s Code was the most extensive and complete Mesopotamian law code; used by
Hammurabi to maintain his empire. Criminal laws established high standards of behavior through
stern punishments for violators, and civil laws regulated prices, wages, commercial dealings, marital
relationships, and the conditions of slavery; relied heavily on the principle of lex talionis-the "law of
retaliation," whereby offenders suffered punishments resembling their violations.
The Hittites were a people from Anatolia, who brought down the Babylonian empire around 1595
B.C. They were famous for their skill in building and using chariots and were pioneers of the Iron Age
Assyrian Empire was an empire in Mesopotamia built by descendent of the Akkadians, who extended
their authority south after 1000 B.C.E. At its high point, during the eighth and seventh centuries
B.C.E., the Assyrian empire covered Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, much of Anatolia, and most of
Egypt. Internal unrest and external assaults brought it down in 612 B.C.E.
New Babylonian Empire, also known as the Chaldean empire, dominated Mesopotamia from 600 to
550 B.C.E. Their most famous king was Nebuchadnezzar who built the Hanging Gardens of
Babylon. This second Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Persian.
Cuneiform was a writing system developed by the Sumerians beginning about 2900 B.C.E., using a
wedge-shaped stylus to impress symbols on wet clay tablets which were then hardened by baking. The
symbols represented not only physical objects, but also sounds, syllables, and ideas.
Epic of Gilgamesh was the first reflective literature in Western civilization, compiled after 2000
B.C.E. during the days of Babylonian empire; recounted the experiences of Gilgamesh, king of Uruk,
who lived shortly after 3000 B.C.E.; explored themes of human friendship, relations between humans
and the gods, and especially the meaning of life and death.
Gate of Ishtar: was the principal fortified gate of Babyon made blue tile and one of the seven
wonders of the ancient world.
Chariots: Drawn by horses and developed by foreign peoples (e.g., the Hyksos and the Assyrians) as a
powerful new military technology; used to invade Egypt around the time of the Middle Kingdom
(2080-1640 B.C.E.)
City-state was the form of government typical in ancient Mesopotamia which was characterized by
urban-based kingdom ruled by kings and nobles.
Bronze was discovered by Mesopotamian craftsmen around 3000 B.C.E. A strong alloy of copper and
tin, bronze enabled the specialized production of much more effective weapons. Eventually, it was
also used for agricultural tools.
Iron was discovered by the Hittites as early as 1400 BCE, who introduced iron to make tools and
weapons. Assyrians made particularly effective use of iron weapons in building their empire.
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Patriarchal Society is the system of social organization in which men have vested authority over all
public and private affairs. Mesopotamia, Egypt, Aryan and Chinese societies were all established
along patriarchal lines; Hammurabi's laws reflected the importance of patriarchal organization.
Ziggurats were Mesopotamian pyramid-like temples built to honor their gods and goddesses.
Egypt: The Gift of the Nile
Menes (also known as Narmer) was a early Egyptian king unified Egypt about 3100 B.C.E. and
brought about the first centralized state ruled by the pharaoh. He also founded his capital city at
Memphis.
Akhenaten: (1353-1335 B.C.E.) was the Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV, who named himself
Akhenaten to honor the god Aten. He considered Aten to be the only true god, thus issuing in a shortlived era of monotheism in Egypt, perhaps the world's first.
Monotheism is the worship of one god.
Queen Hatshepsut was the regent of Thutmosis III, who claimed the title of pharaoh for herself. She
is generally regarded by Egyptologists as one of the most successful pharaohs.
Thutmosis III and Ramses II were Pharaohs of the New Kingdom who continued imperial expansion
and launched seventeen campaigns against Palestine and Syria. Their efforts brought the New
Kingdom to the pinnacle of power as they dominated the coastal regions of the eastern Mediterranean.
Amon-Re was a composite of the sun god Re and the air god Amon around which the most important
cult of ancient Egypt developed; honored at a massive temple complex in Heliopolis by Egyptian
priests
Aten was the Egyptian god whose cult flourished during the reign of Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (reigned
1353-1335 B.C.E.). The pharaoh changed his name to Akhenaten in honor of his preferred deity. Aten
was considered to be one and only true god, but this monotheism was only short-lived in Egypt. After
the pharaoh died, the cult of Amon-Re soon replaced the cult of Aten.
The Cult of Osiris was a popular cult of ancient Egypt; Osiris, the lord of the underworld, was
associated with immortality as an afterlife reward for individuals observing high moral standards.
Hieroglyphs refers to the writing system developed in ancient Egypt; pictographs supplemented with
symbols representing sounds and ideas. The term hieroglyphs came from two Greek words meaning
"holy inscriptions."
The Hyksos were foreign invaders who brought down Egypt's Middle Kingdom in 1640 B.C.E. They
were later expelled but their success prompted later pharaohs to seize control of regions that might
pose future threats.
The Nile River of northeast Africa is the longest in the world and runs more than 3,978 miles from its
source at lake Victoria to its outlet through the delta to the Mediterranean Sea. Its annual floods left
alluvial deposits on the valley and supported productive agriculture in ancient Egypt.
Ma’at was the Egyptian concept of a divinely authorized authority, which was embodied in the
Pharaoh; and not unlike the Mandate of Heaven concept in China.
Pharaohs were the kings of ancient Egypt. They claimed to be gods living on the earth in human
form, owners and absolute rulers of all the land.
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The Rosetta Stone was uncovered by some French soldiers of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. It had
three rows of writing on it in two languages, Egyptian and Greek, using three scripts, Egyptian
Hieroglyphic, Demotic Egyptian and Greek. Jean-François Champollion, a French linguist, used the
Demotic and the Greek to first translate the hieroglyphics in the early 1820s.
China: The Rise of the Middle Kingdom
Yangshao Society was the earliest organized state in China developed along the Huang He.
Yellow River (Huang He) was the principal river of Northern China and flowed from the west
starting at the high plateau of Tibet eastward into the Yellow Sea. The complex society of East Asia
originated from the valley of this river. The Huang He is often called China's Sorrow for its frequent
destruction brought by flooding.
Yangtze River was the principal river in the southern part of China and flowed from mountains of
Tibet in the west to the East China Sea in the east. Unlike the Yellow River, the Yangtze was
dependable for rice farmers and important for water transport.
Xia was the first dynasty of China, founded by Yu in the valley of the Yellow River, and which,
according to tradition, lasted from 2200 to 1766 B.C.E. This dynasty is considered mostly mythical
because no certain archaeological sites have been connected to it.
Shun was the second of the three sage kings in ancient Chinese legends; allegedly ordered the four
seasons and issued uniform weights, measures, and units of time.
Yao was the first of the three sage kings in ancient Chinese legends. He was a towering figure,
extraordinarily modest, sincere, and respectful, whose virtuous influence brought harmony to his own
family and the larger society.
Yu was the third of the three sage kings in ancient Chinese legends and allegedly the founder of the
Xia dynasty; possibly a real Chinese ruler who was revered for his deeds of bringing the Yellow River
under control.
The Shang Dynasty was the second dynasty of China. The Shang Dynasty changed its capitals six
times along the valley of Yellow River. The Shang Dynasty was famous for its bronze arts and
writings on oracle bones and lasted from 1766 to 1122
The Zhou Dynasty was the third Chinese dynasty; originally a vassal kingdom of Shang in the west,
which overthrew the Shang in 1122 B.C.E. and established a new dynasty that lasted until 256 B.C.E.
The Period of the Warring States was the period of Chinese history which lasted from 403 to 221
B.C.E. A number of states resorted to military campaigns against one another, struggling for
hegemony over China, as the central government of the Zhou became powerless. The prolonged civil
wars were finally brought to an end by the unification of the Qin state.
Mandate of Heaven was the political theory of ancient China, referring to divine source for political
legitimacy of rulers. Heaven only gave the mandate, or the right to rule, to virtuous rulers. This
philosophy was first advocated by the Zhou rulers to justify their overthrow of the Shang.
Son of Heaven was the title for a Chinese ruler; so called because he was supposed to serve as a link
between heaven and earth, to govern conscientiously, to observe high standards of honor and justice,
and to maintain order and harmony within his realm.
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Veneration of Ancestors was the popular religion of China since Neolithic times and was based on
the belief that spirits of one's ancestors passed into another realm of existence from which they had the
power to support and protect their surviving families if the descendants displayed proper respect and
ministered to the spirits' needs.
Oracle Bones were the principal instruments used by fortune-tellers or diviners in ancient China.
Questions were inscribed on broad bones of large animals or turtle shells, and when heated, the bones
or shells would produce splits and cracks, which were interpreted by diviners to determine the
answers.
Confucius or Kong Fuzi was the most influential thinker of classical China honored as a sage by later
generations. Like Socrates, he wrote nothing down but his disciples did write down his thoughts. Thus,
Confucianism became the fundamental school of Chinese thought and advocated political activism
and moral education as the way to save China from the chaos of the Warring States period. Politically,
it was a doctrine of elitism, which emphasized enlightened leadership of Junzi ("superior
individuals"). Junzi were expected to possess
ren (benevolence),
li (propriety),
xiao (filial piety).
Mencius (372-289 B.C.E.) was the principal spokesman for the Confucian school, who firmly
believed in the goodness of human nature and advocated government by benevolence and humanity.
His ideas deeply influenced the Confucian tradition.
Xunzi (298-238 B.C.E.) was an influential Confucian scholar, with a tendency toward Legalism in his
ideas; believed that human nature was basically bad and selfish, so that strong social discipline was
necessary to bring order to society; advocated clear, well-publicized standards of conduct; shared
Confucian views of social optimism, political activism, and moral education.
Dao or Tao is the central concept of Daoism (Taoism) and means "the way," "the way of nature," or
"the way of the cosmos." To be more specific, it figured as the original force of the cosmos, an eternal
and unchanging principle that governs all the workings of the world. In Daoist writings, it appears as a
supremely passive force, which does nothing but accomplishes everything.
Laozi was the founder of Daoism. He lived during the sixth century B.C.E., and was believed to be the
author of the first Daoist work, the Daodejing (Classic of the Way and of Virtue), but the book was
certainly a contribution of many hands over several centuries after him.
Wuwei is the chief moral virtue of Daoism, which can be understood as disengagement from the
affairs of the world, such as advanced education or personal striving. Wuwei calls for individuals to
live simple and unpretentious lives and keep in harmony with nature. By this moral virtue, Daoism
encouraged less government, small and simple community life, and individual freedom from humanly
constructed standards of behavior.
Legalism was the school of thought in classical China that promoted a practical and ruthlessly
efficient approach to statecraft. Legalists believed that a strong and well-regulated government was of
foremost importance to bring peace and order to society, and the foundations of a state's strength were
agriculture and armed forces. They advocated clear and strict laws of rewards and punishments to
harness selfish desire and energy of individuals for the interests of the state.
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The Book of Lord Shang was the quintessential Legalist work compiled by Han Fezi who was the
most influential representative for Legalism and synthesized Legalist ideas in a collection of powerful
and well-argued essays on statecraft.
India: The Indus River Valley and Aryan Invasions
The Indus River is one of the major rivers of the world, flowing from its sources in the Hindu Kush
and the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea. The first complex society of the Indian subcontinent, Harappan
society, was located in its valley.
The Hindu Kush is the principal mountain range in the northwest portion of the Indian subcontinent
and one of the sources of the Indus River.
Himalayas are the highest mountains in the world, located at the northern edge of the Indian
subcontinent. They form a natural barrier between India and China and are one of the sources of both
the Indus and Ganges Rivers.
Ganges River Valley is the principal river valley in Northern India and the site of the earliest
settlements of the Indian subcontinent. Like the Indus, its source is the Himalayas. It flows into the
Bay of Bengal.
Dravidians: Indigenous people from the valley of the Indus River who established Harappan society
by about 3000 B.C.E. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were the two major cities of Harappan society
which were well-planned and precisely laid out, that dominated the valley of the Indus River until its
collapse about 1500 B.C.E.
Indo-Europeans: Nomadic people whose original homeland was probably the steppe region of
modern-day Ukraine and southern Russia; developed their earliest communities there between about
4500 and 2500 B.C.E., and migrated to many other regions of Eurasia beginning about 4000 B.C.E.
Aryans: A group of Indo-European nomadic pastoralists who migrated to India in large numbers after
1500 B.C.E.; they integrated with the indigenous Dravidians and created a new society in India.
Vedas: meant "wisdom" or "knowledge" needed by priests to carry out their functions and referred to
orally transmitted works of early Aryan priests. There are altogether four Vedas, the earliest and the
most important of which is the Rig Veda; compiled between 1400 and 900 B.C.E., written down
beginning in about 600 B.C.E.
Citadel is a fortress or stronghold that commands a city.
The Vedic Age refers to the millennium between 1500 and 500 B.C.E. in ancient Indian history.
The Caste System was the Aryan system of social stratification or hierarchy:
1. Brahmins were the guardians of knowledge of spirituality; that is, priests;
2. Kshatriya were the protectors, that is, soldiers and incipient aristocrats;
3. Vaishya were the merchants, artisans and landowners;
4. Shudra were laborers and peasants.
Below the Shudra were the Untouchables, called Dalits today.
Raja was the Sanskrit word for king; Maharaja will later mean great king.
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Other Important Civilizations
Semites: is a term, which refers to a racial and linguistic group of related peoples of largely Middle
Eastern origin. Unlike the Bantu in Africa, the Turkic-Mongolians in Asia and the Eurasian IndoEuropeans, the Semites did not spread as far geographically or numerically, but have had enormous
impact on World History. In our course, Semites include the Akkadians, Amorites, Babylonians,
Hebrews, Phoenicians, and the desert peoples speaking Arabic and Aramaic.
The Hebrews, like the Akkadians and Babylonians were a Semitic speaking people. Unlike the more
powerful nations, the Hebrews lived between Mesopotamia and Egypt during the second millennium
B.C.E and later migrated first to Egypt and then to Palestine, where they established a regional
kingdom that dominated the territory between Syrian and Sinai Peninsula during the tenth century.
They were especially known for their monotheistic belief in Yahweh.
Moses was the charismatic leader of the Hebrews who led them from Egypt around 1300 B.C.E. to
Palestine, where they built a regional kingdom.
Charismatic means someone who has charisma or a personal magic of leadership which creates
special popular loyalty or enthusiasm. It can also mean a magnetic charm or personality.
David (1,000 to 970) and Solomon (970 to 930) were the two greatest Hebrew kings who built
Jerusalem into a great city and used Iron technology to dominate the shores of the Western
Mediterranean.
Yahweh: God of the Hebrews believed to be the creator and sustainer of the world and all within it;
demanded that the Hebrews, his chosen people, observe high moral and ethical standards. Monotheism
represented by belief in Yahweh had a deep influence on the development of Christianity and Islam.
The Phoenicians were, like the Hebrews, Akkadians and Babylonians, a Semitic people. They settled
on the shores of the eastern Mediterranean and were famous for shipbuilding and trading. They
established colonies and traded all over the Mediterranean. They were the founders of Carthage, the
great enemy of Rome, but their greatest contribution to Western Civilization was that of Alphabetic
Writing, which they invented around 1500 BCE.
Kush: African kingdom established by Nubians in the northern part of sub-Saharan Africa by about
1000 B.C.E. Invaded Egypt about 750 B.C.E. and imposed Nubian rule there until Assyrian
conquerors drove them out in 664 B.C.E.; especially known for their spreading iron metallurgy in subSaharan Africa.
Nubians: a people of northern sub-Saharan Africa who established the kingdom of Kush during the
first millennium B.C.E., and invaded Egypt imposing their rule in 750 B.C.E. Known for their spread
of iron metallurgy in sub-Saharan Africa.
Minoan Civilization centered on the island of Crete. By 2000 BCE, the Minoans had built a
flourishing civilization, built of farming and trading. We know they traded over the entire Eastern
Mediterranean. Their main deity was a mother goddess who was worshipped in conjunction with a
male fertility god in the form of a bull. Around 1700 their society was shaken by natural disasters
(volcanoes and earthquakes) but between 1600 and 1450, they rebounded and reached their zenith,
followed by decline and domination by Mycenaean invaders.
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The Mycenaean or Achaean Greeks were tall, warlike, Indo European invaders who first invaded
and then built massive stone forts and palaces in Greece. By 1600, they were trading with the Minoans
but after 1450, they conquered the Minoans and imposed their culture. They dominated Greece and the
Eastern Mediterranean and were the Greeks of the Iliad and Odyssey. Their warlike values reflected
their nomadic heritage and paralleled the Aryans of India.
Linear A was the original script of the Minoans, which was hieroglyphic in nature but later developed
into an alphabetic script, which has never been deciphered.
Linear B was the writing of the Mycenaean Greeks. It has been deciphered and is an early form of
Greek.
The Dorians were even more warlike than the Mycenaean and around 1100 BCE, they destroyed all
civilization in Greece and ushered in a period of dark ages out of which Classical Greece developed.
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