Download F: Foreign and Colonial Affairs VISUALS

F: Foreign and Colonial Affairs VISUALS F1: The Congress of Vienna This painting of 1819 by the French artist Jean­Baptiste Isabey shows the heads of state and chief ministers of the major powers gathered in Vienna to arrange peace terms after the defeat of Napoleon. They also aimed to establish a mechanism – regular meetings or ‘Congresses’ – through which differences between the Great Powers could be discussed and resolved short of war. Britain was represented at the first, and most important, Congress by Viscount Castlereagh, the foreign secretary. Wellington, the commander in chief, was also in attendance. Source: North Wind Picture Archives, Alamy Images F2: The Charge of the Light Brigade This action, during the Battle of Balaclava on 25 October 1854, acquired iconic status as an indicator of British problems during the Crimean War. Because of a misunderstood order from the British commander, the Earl of Raglan, the Light Brigade, comprising 673 men, made a direct charge on the Russian guns. Although a spectacular example of British heroism under fire, immortalized in Tennyson’s poem ‘The Charge of the Light Brigade’, it was a ghastly error which cost the lives of nearly 40 per cent of those who participated. This picture – Balaclava ­ from the 1870s, by Elizabeth Thompson Lady Butler (1846­1933) hangs in the Manchester Art Gallery.
1 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain Source: Manchester Art Gallery UK, The Bridgeman Art Library Ltd F3: Boer War Concentration Camps During the later stages of the Boer War, when the British committed themselves to a war of attrition in order to defeat their opponents, a number of camps were established in which Boers were interned. It is estimated that more than 25,000 men, women and children were confined in these camps, often in appalling conditions which provoked massive criticism in Britain when newspaper accounts and reports from observers in South Africa were assimilated. This particularly harrowing photograph is of a Boer child, Lizzie van Zyl who died in the camp at Bloomfontein.
2 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain Source: Orphan Work
3 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain SIGNIFICANT STATS 1. Britain was much more involved in European wars in the eighteenth century than the nineteenth. In the eighteenth century, it fought five wars against European nations, totalling forty­three years in all. In the nineteenth century, it fought in only two, lasting a total of seventeen years. The first of these wars was – in effect – a hangover from a conflict begun in the 1790s and the second – the Crimean – lasted for only two years. 2. By contrast, the UK was frequently involved in conflicts outside Europe. In addition to the war with the United States (1812­15), Britain fought two ‘opium’ wars with China, two in Afghanistan and two in South Africa. During the so­called ‘Scramble for Africa’, British troops were engaged in seven wars on that continent. More than half of the years from 1873 to 1902 were years of war.
4 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain F.i Leading diplomatic treaties and alliances affecting Great Britain 1. Treaty of Versailles, Sept 1783: ending American War of Independence (a) The 13 mainland colonies granted independence from Britain. (b) Certain fishing rights off Newfoundland granted to the Americans and extended to the French. (c) France gained West Indian islands of Tobago and St Lucia plus Senegal and Gore. (d) Spain gained Minorca and regained Florida. 2. Triple Alliance, Apr–Aug 1788 Britain, Holland and Prussia: alliance to preserve European peace. 3. First Coalition against France, Feb 1793 Britain, Prussia (left 1795), Spain (left 1795), Austria (made peace with France, 1797), Holland (defeated 1795), Sardinia (left 1796). 4. Treaty of St Petersburg, Sept 1794 Britain, Russia and Austria against France. 5. Second Coalition against France, June 1799 Britain, Russia (left 1800), Austria (left 1801), Turkey, Portugal (left 1801) and Naples (left 1801). 6. Peace of Amiens, Mar 1802: ending war between Britain and France (a) All British maritime conquests during the war returned with exceptions of Trinidad (taken from Spain) and Ceylon (taken from the Dutch). (b) Cape of Good Hope returned to Batavian Republic (Dutch). (c) France agreed to evacuate southern Italy. (d) Egypt returned to Turkey; both Britain and France agree to quit it. (e) Malta handed over to a Neapolitan garrison. 7. Third Coalition against France (Treaty of St Petersburg), Apr 1805 Britain and Russia to liberate North German states. Austria joins in Aug but leaves in Dec after making peace with France at Pressburg. 8. Treaty of Örebro, July 1812 Britain, Russia and Sweden against France. 9. Treaty of Reichenbach, June 1813 Britain, Russia and Prussia against France. Britain agrees to £2m subsidy to keep Russian and Prussia armies in the field.
5 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain 10. Treaty of Chaumont, Mar 1814 Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria against France. £5m British subsidy to other participants. Signatories agree not to make separate peace with France. 11. Treaty of Fontainebleau, Apr 1814 Allies agree on Napoleon’s banishment to Elba. 12. First Peace of Paris, May 1814 (a) France given her pre­war (1792) European territories plus Savoy. (b) French overseas possessions restored, except Tobago, St Lucia and Mauritius which were retained by Britain. (c) France recognized independence of the Netherlands and the German and Italian states. (d) Belgium given to Netherlands, forming the United Netherlands. The Scheldt to remain an open river. 13. Anglo­Dutch Treaty, Aug 1814 (a) Britain retained Cape of Good Hope and Guiana settlements, Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice as part of British Guiana. (b) Britain to restore Java to the Dutch (handed over in Dec 1816). (c) Britain paid United Netherlands £2m to be spent on fortifying Belgian frontier against France. 14. Treaty of Ghent, Dec 1814: ending war between Britain and USA (a) Both sides revert to status quo ante bellum, except that Britain retains islands in Passamaquoddy Bay (off Maine). (b) USA did not press compensation claims for wartime commercial loss. (c) Outstanding problems on fishing rights and navigation unresolved. 15. Congress of Vienna, June 1815 and Second Peace of Paris, Nov 1815: ending Napoleonic Wars (a) France ceded Saar, Landau and Savoy; army of occupation to stay in France for five years. (b) Britain retains Malta and Heligoland. (c) Victorious powers agree to act together to maintain the settlement if France attempted to disturb it. Quadruple Alliance (Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia) renewed. (d) Powers to meet in regular conference to discuss the workings of the European settlement. (e) Britain establishes protectorate over Ionian Islands.
6 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain 16. Congress of Aix­la­Chapelle, Nov 1818 (a) France joins European concert of nations. (b) Quadruple Alliance of 1815 renewed to preserve France from revolution. (c) Powers agree to periodic meetings, but Britain refuses to negotiate strengthened counter­ revolutionary alliances. 17. Congress of Troppau, Nov 1820 Britain refuses to accede to declaration by Austria, Prussia and Russia that revolutions in other states could justify Great Power intervention to crush them. 18. Treaty of London, July 1827 Britain, Russia and France recognize autonomy of Greece but under suzerainty of Turkey. 19. London Protocols, Feb 1830 After Russo­Turkish War ends, Greece declared fully independent under protection of France, Russia and Britain. 20. London Conference, Oct–Nov 1831 Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, Russia and Belgium agree on 24 articles enunciating terms for the separation of Belgium from Holland. Negotiations controlled by Palmerston; Holland forced to accept terms after defeat by France in Dec 1832. 21. Quadruple Alliance, Apr 1834 Britain, France, Spain and Portugal. Negotiated by Palmerston to block absolutist candidates to the thrones of Spain and Portugal and secure the constitutional rights of the two infant queens, Isabella of Spain and Maria of Portugal. 22. Treaty of London, Apr 1839 Formal ending of the Belgian question. Belgian and Dutch territories finally confirmed; Luxembourg becomes an independent Grand Duchy. 23. Treaty of London, July 1840 Quadruple Alliance of Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria to impose settlement in war between Turkey and Egypt, led by Mehemet Ali. Diplomatic initiative to curb growing French influence in the Middle East. British attack on Acre persuades Mehemet Ali to accept terms. 24. Convention of the Straits, July 1841 Mehemet Ali becomes hereditary pasha of Egypt. Great Powers, now including France, guarantee Turkish independence. Dardanelles and Bosphorus are closed to warships of all nations during ­peacetime; this reversed terms of a Russo­Turkish accord in 1833.Russian and French ambitions in Ottoman Empire curbed to British diplomatic and commercial advantage.
7 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain 25. Webster–Ashburton Treaty, Aug 1842 USA and Britain agree frontier between USA and Canada; treaty inaugurates a period of improved relations between the powers. 26. Treaty of Nanking, Aug 1842: ending first Anglo­Chinese War Britain acquired Hong Kong. Britain gained access to Chinese ports of Amoy, Shanghai, Ningpo and Foochow. China paid compensation for confiscated opium and for cost of the war. 27. Treaty of London, May 1852 Britain, France, Russia, Austria and Sweden. Major powers assign succession of Danish throne and Frederick VII of Denmark agrees not to incorporate duchies of Schleswig and Holstein within Denmark. 28. Anglo­French alliance, Mar 1854 To aid Turkey in her war with Russia. Britain concerned about Russian expansionism in the East. 29. Triple Alliance, Dec 1854 Austria joins Anglo­French alliance. Promises to keep 30,000 men in the Danubian principalities to counter Russian threat. France guarantees Austria’s Italian possessions. 30. Treaty of Paris, Mar 1856: ending Crimean War Britain and Russia agree to respect Turkish independence. Black Sea becomes neutral; Russian fortifications at Sebastopol and Odessa to be demolished. Danubian principalities cease to be under Russian protection; placed under suzerainty of Turkey with their privileges guaranteed by the powers. European Commission to control navigation of the Danube. Russia cedes part of southern Bessarabia to Moldavia. 31. Treaty of Peking, Oct 1860: ending second Anglo­Chinese War Ships allowed to trade in the Yangtze as far as Hankow. b) Eleven more Chinese ports opened to foreign trade. Importation of opium legalized. 32. Treaty of London, July 1863 Britain, France, Russia and Denmark settle the question of the Ionian Islands. The islands cease to be a British protectorate and become neutral; fortifications on Corfu demolished. Prussia and Austria (1864) and Turkey (1865) approve the agreement. Britain establishes good relations with Greece, which elects a pro­British king. 33. Conference of London, May 1867
8 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain Great Powers guarantee neutrality of Luxembourg against demands by Napoleon III that it be incorporated within France. Prussian troops withdrawn from Luxembourg. 34. London Conference (Black Sea Navigation Treaty), March 1871 Agreement involving Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and Turkey: (a) The European Commission of the Danube, established in 1856 (see No 30 above) and under international law since 1865, extended for twelve years (b) Staff and Buildings of the Commission were declared to be neutral 35. Treaty of Washington, May 1871 (a) Mechanism agreed for resolution of the ‘Alabama incident’. In 1872, Britain agreed to pay $15.5m compensation to the US for the activities of a British­made ship in supporting the South during the American Civil War. (b) Agreement reached on a fisheries dispute between USA and Canada. US fishermen allowed to use Canadian waters (c) Long­standing maritime boundary dispute (which began with the so­called ‘Pig War’ in 1859) between the USA and Canada referred to Wilhelm I of Germany for arbitration. In 1872, a commission appointed by Wilhelm accepted the USA interpretation of the boundary, leaving the San Juan islands in the US as part of the state of Washington. 36. Treaty of Fomena, July 1874: ending war between Britain and the Ashanti (a) Ashanti paid a substantial indemnity in gold (b) British could now use Ashanti forts without payment (c) Port of Elmina recognized as part of British territory (d) Ashanti withdrew their troops from coastal areas and to protect trading routes 37. Treaty of Berlin, July 1878 Agreement with Austria­Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and the Ottoman Empire which aimed to stabilize the Balkan area of South­East Europe (a) Main thrust of the Treaty concerned territorial arrangements in the Balkans. The ‘Big Bulgaria’ under Russian influence, which had been created by the Treaty of San Stefano (1877) was broken up. Three new states created: autonomous Bulgaria; Eastern Rumelia, notionally under Turkish control but with a Christian governor; Macedonia, which remained fully under Turkish control (b) Austria­Hungary increased its influence in the Balkans through its administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina (c) Russia took over the Turkish fortresses of Batum and administered Bessarabia (d) In response to British protests, the Turkish Empire agreed not to persecute their Christian subjects
9 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain 38. Anglo­Turkish Treaty, August 1878 (a) Britain occupies the island of Cyprus, which remains notionally under Turkish sovereignty. (Britain formally took control of the island at the beginning of the First World War in 1914) (b) Britain and Turkey agree on the need to keep Russia Constantinople and the Southern Balkans 39. Treaty of Gandamak, May 1879 between British government and the Amir of Afghanistan (a) The Treaty brought a temporary end to the Second Afghan war (b) The Afghans ceded control of some border territories in Sibi and the valleys of Korram and Pishin to Britain (c) Khyber Pass came under British control (d) Arrangements made for increased trade between Afghanistan and Britain 40. Pretoria Convention, October 1881 between Britain and the Boers in South Africa (a) The Treaty confirmed the ending of the First Boer War and British troops left the Transvaal (b) British agreed to Boer self­government in the Transvaal, under suzerainty of Britain (c) Boers accepted Queen Victoria as nominal head of state and British control over African affairs and the native districts of South Africa 41. Conference of Berlin, 1884­5 The Conference establishes ‘rules’ for the ‘Partition of Africa’ by European powers: (a) General Act, February 1885: governing affairs in central Africa (b) Suez Canal Declaration, March 1885: Suez Canal navigation to be freely accessible to Britain, Austria­Hungary, France, Germany, Italy and Russia (c) Anglo­German agreement, April 1885 concerning areas of territorial ‘influence’ by the powers (d) Anglo­Russian agreement, September 1885 concerning the frontiers of Afghanistan 42. Convention of Constantinople, March 1888 Declaration signed by Britain, Austria­Hungary, France, Germany, Netherlands, Russia & Turkey concerning the Suez Canal. The powers agreed that: ‘The Suez Maritime Canal shall always be free and open, in time of war as in time of peace, to every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag’. 43. Anglo­German Territorial Agreement, July 1890 (a) Britain ceded Heligoland (two islands about 45 NW of the German coast and in British hands since 1814) to Germany (b) Germany renounced its claims to Uganda (c) Germany recognized Britain’s protectorate over Zanzibar
10 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain 44. Anglo­French Territorial Agreements, July 1893 (a) The powers agreed on boundaries between French and British possessions in the Gold Coast (b) The powers agreed a protocol on territories in the Upper Mekong (present­day Laos) 45. Anglo­German Territorial Agreements, July & November 1893 (a) Anglo­German boundaries in Eastern Equatorial Africa defined (b) Broad agreement on German and British boundaries in Africa agreed 46. Anglo­Italian Protocol, May 1894 An agreement which determined the boundary between British Somaliland (in the north and west of present Somalia) and Italian Somaliland (a larger territory running north­south) 47. Second Treaty of Peking, 1898 The Chinese Qing dynasty signed a Convention by which land on the Kowloon Peninsula, later known as the ‘New Territories’, was leased to the UK for a period of ninety­nine years and thus became part of the enlarged Crown Colony of Hong Kong. The transfer enabled the UK to secure its military defences. The territory reverted to China in 1997. 48. Treaty concerning Sino and Pacific Affairs, October 1900 (a) Germany and Britain agree that, if the territories of either are attacked by either China or Japan, each will assist the other (b) At Germany’s insistence, Manchuria is not to be considered within the territories covered by the Treaty (c) Both powers agree to support freedom of trade in the area 49. Anglo­Japanese Alliance (Treaty of London), January 1902 (a) Both countries agree to remain neutral if one or other becomes involved in war with one other power (b) If Britain or Japan becomes involved in a war with more than one other country, then the other power will support it (c) The powers agree not to make any agreements with other powers which might jeopardise this alliance (d) The treaty to remain in force for five years in the first instance (In the event it was twice renewed, in 1905 and 1911) 50. Treaty of Vereeniging, May 1902: ending the Second Boer War (a) Boers surrendered, agreeing to swear allegiance to the Crown (b) After surrender, Boer property rights to be respected (c) A general amnesty for war crimes put in place (d) Dutch language could be used in South African schools and law courts (e) British government agreed not to impose land taxes in South Africa
11 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain (f) British government also agreed eventually to grant self­government to the Transvaal and Orange Free State as constituent colonies of the British Empire 51. Anglo­French Entente, April 1904 (a) A loose agreement between the United Kingdom and France rather than a formal alliance (b) France and the UK agreed that each had a dominant sphere of influence in North Africa, the former in Morocco and the latter in Egypt. Each power agreed not to obstruct the other in ‘their’ territories (c) France gave up all territorial rights over the western part of Newfoundland (Canada). (d) Britain gave a town Yarbulenda and a small group of islands, the Isles de Los, in west Africa to France (e) The border between French and British possessions east of the River Niger was more clearly defined (f) The UK recognised that territory in Siam (modern Thailand) east of the basin of the River Menam was a French sphere of influence. 52. Anglo­Tibetan Convention, September 1904 (a) Tibet agreed not to have diplomatic or commercial relations with any power other than the United Kingdom (b) Tibet agreed to pay the UK an indemnity (c) Tibet opened Yadong, Gyangze and Gartog as fully commercial ports, with British troops to be stationed in Yadong (d) The existing border between Tibet and Sikkim (agreed in 1890 and favourable to British interests) was confirmed 53. Anglo­Chinese Convention, July 1906 This revised the terms of Anglo­Tibetan Convention of 1904 (a) Britain recognized Chinese influence in Tibet (b) Britain agreed not to take over Tibetan territory or to interfere in Tibetan government (c) China agreed not to permit any other power to interfere with the territory or government of Tibet (d) Both nations agree ‘to take such steps as shall be necessary’ to secure the terms of this agreement 54. Anglo­Russian Entente, August 1907 (a) The two powers agreed spheres of influence in Persia, which they would not seek to disturb. Russia’s was in the north of the country and the UK’s in the south. The authority of the Shah of Persia was not to be disturbed in a central area of the country (b) Russia acknowledged that Tibet should be under Chinese, rather than Russian control (c) The UK withdrew from the Lhasa Convention of 1903. Under duress, the Tibetans had signed an agreement which converted the country, in effect, into a British Protectorate
12 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain (d) Russia agreed that Afghanistan was a British protectorate and that it would not attempt to make contact with its ruler, the Amir 55. Triple Entente, September 1907 (a) Rather than being a detailed and formal alliance, this was a de facto arrangement acknowledging that Russia had joined the understanding reached by the United Kingdom and France a little more than three years earlier (b) In the event of war, all three powers agreed not to make a separate peace with Germany (c) Although far from the original intention, this Entente would become the core of a military alliance against the central European Triple Alliance of Austria­Hungary, Germany and Italy (d) Members of the Entente also had agreements, often bi­lateral ones, with Japan, Portugal, Spain and the United States. This helps to explain how, by 1914, Europe had become divided into two heavily armed camps 56. Treaty of London, May 1913 ending the First Balkan War Britain signed this Treaty as one of the great powers, along with Austria­Hungary, Germany, Italy and Russia (a) Albania was confirmed as independent state (b) Bulgaria acquired new territories in Thrace (c) The Great Powers disagreed over territorial arrangements for Macedonia and no geographical settlement was reached here (d) In effect, Ottoman (Turkish) rule in the Balkans came to an end The brief Second Balkan War (1913) was caused by Bulgarian attempts to increase its territory and, especially, to control the whole of Macedonia. Bulgaria was isolated, however, and failed in its objective. The great powers were not signatories to the Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913), ending this war. Bulgaria retained only a small amount of the territory gained after the First Balkan War. Serbia, Romania and Greece all gained from this Territory. Greek territory increased by about two thirds and its population by more than 60 per cent. Old rivalries and disputes continued, however. The Balkans remained highly unstable in 1913, with the Great Powers increasingly concerned that they could be drawn into a major international conflict.
13 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain F.ii Wars involving the United Kingdom, 1783–1904 1. War with Revolutionary France, Feb 1793–Mar 1802 1793 July – Corsica occupied; Aug – Adm. Hood captures Toulon but it has to be evacuated under republican pressure in Dec; Sept – British Army under duke of York defeated at Hondschoote. 1794 Apr – Subsidies paid to Prussia and Holland; Seychelles, Martinique, St Lucia and Guadeloupe captured but French recapture Guadeloupe. 1795 Feb – Tr. of Basle: Prussia make peace with France; Batavian Republic (Holland) declares war on Britain; Ceylon captured from Dutch; June–Oct – Unsuccessful attempt to aid counter­revolution in Brittany – Quiberon Bay expedition; June – St Lucia recaptured by French; Oct – Belgium annexed by France. 1796 July – Elba captured; Aug – Tr. of San Ildefonso between France and Spain; Oct – Spain declares war on Britain. Britain captures Demerara, Essequibo and Guiana from Dutch; St Lucia and Grenada captured from French; Britain quits Corsica. 1797 Feb – Battle of St Vincent won by Jervis and Nelson against Spanish Navy; Trinidad captured. Apr–May – Naval mutinies at Spithead and the Nore; Oct – Adm. Duncan defeats Dutch fleet at Camperdown; Peace of Campo Formio between Austria and France leaves Britain isolated. 1798 May – French expedition to Egypt; danger of invasion of Britain recedes; Aug – Nelson defeats French fleet in Aboukir Bay (Battle of the Nile); attempted French invasion of Ireland during Irish rebellion; Dec – Anglo­Russian alliance signed. 1799 Mar–May – Siege of Acre by Napoleon frustrated by British and Turkish force; Oct – duke of York defeated at Alkmaar; naval blockade of Holland begins. 1800 Sept – Britain captures Malta; Dec – ‘Armed Neutrality’ (Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia) against Britain’s right of search of ships. 1801 Jan – British embargo on ships of the Armed Neutrality; Feb – Tr. of Luneville, Austria and France; Mar – France defeated near Alexandria; Mar–Apr – Naval actions against Denmark; Nelson’s victory at Battle of Copenhagen forces Denmark to a truce; Prussia joins the Armed Neutrality; June – Armed Neutrality breaks up; Abercromby captures Cairo for Britain; Portugal shuts ports to British ships; Sept – France captures part of Guiana; Oct – Peace preliminaries begin. 2. Napoleonic Wars, May 1803–July 1815 1803 May – Britain places embargoes on French and Dutch ships in British ports; June – France occupies Hanover; Britain takes St Lucia and Tobago; Sept – Britain takes Dutch Guiana. 1804 Oct – Capt. Moore captures Spanish silver convoy on its way to Cadiz and sinks escort; helps to drive Spain to declare war on Britain in Dec.
14 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain 1805 Oct – Austrians defeated by France at Ulm; decisive defeat of Villeneuve’s French fleet by Nelson at Trafalgar, off Cadiz, renders Britain secure from invasion; Dec – Russia and Austria defeated by France at Austerlitz; Austria makes peace with France. 1806 Jan – Britain occupies Cape of Good Hope; Feb – By Franco­Prussian agreement Prussia agrees to bar British ships from her ports; Apr – Britain declares war on Prussia and begins blockade of French coast; Oct – Prussia, fearing French advances in Germany, declares war on France and is defeated at Jena. Berlin occupied; Nov – Berlin Decrees begin the Napoleonic ‘Continental System’ with aim of closing all Continental ports to British vessels. 1807 Jan – Britain extends naval blockade and declares all ships trading in ports from which hers are excluded liable to capture; June – New alliance between Britain, Russia and Prussia against France; Russians and Prussians defeated at Battle of Friedland; July – By Treaty of Tilsit Russia makes peace with France and agrees to co­operate in economic wartare against Britain; Prussia makes a similar agreement; Sept – Britain bombards Copenhagen to prevent Napoleon using Danish fleet against her; Oct – Denmark declares war on Britain; Nov – France invades Portugal which refuses to support Continental System; Dec – Milan Decrees against British trade extend the System. 1808 Feb – France invades Spain; Aug – British expeditionary force sent to Portugal under command of Wellesley; French defeated at Vimiero but by the Convention of Cintra the French Army was permitted to retire from Portugal intact; Dec – Madrid falls to the French. 1809 Apr – Wellesley returns to Portugal; Orders in Council restrict trade with USA; May – British troops defeat French at Oporto and force their retreat from Portugal; July – Wellesley defeats French in Spain at Talavera; British expedition to the Scheldt to aid Austria in her resumed hostilities with France; British troops land at Walcheren; Oct – Austria makes peace with France; Dec – Walcheren expedition fails and British troops evacuated. 1810 Jan – Sweden joins Continental System; June – French take Portuguese forts of Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida; Wellington, in retreat, pursues scorched earth policy; July – Britain captures Ile de Bourbon and Mauritius; Oct – Wellington’s defences at Torres Vedras prevent French capture of Lisbon; Fontainebleau Decrees order confiscation of British goods found in Napoleonic states; Guadeloupe taken by Britain. 1811 May – Wellington holds off French at Fuentes d’Onoro; Almeida recaptured; Portugal lost to the French; Aug – Britain occupies Java under Sir Samuel Auchmuty. 1812 Jan – Wellington recaptures Ciudad Rodrigo; Apr – Wellington captures Badajoz; June – Russia invaded by Napoleon; July – Wellington defeats French at Salamanca; Aug – Wellington enters Madrid; Sept – Napoleon enters Moscow after defeating Russian troops at Borodino; Oct – Wellington retreats from Burgos; Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow begins; Dec – Napoleon returns to Paris with 500,000 casualties from the Russian campaign.
15 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain 1813 Feb – Prussia and Russia agree on joint attack against Napoleon; May – Napoleon defeats Prussians and Russians at Lutzen and Bautzen; June – Further British subsidies to Russia and Prussia; after Wellington’s defeat of the French at Vitoria he holds the entire Peninsula; Aug – Austria declares war on France; Oct – Wellington enters France across the Pyrenees; Napoleon defeated at Leipzig and his Confederation of the Rhine collapses; Nov – Wellington lays siege to Bayonne; France expelled from Holland; Dec – Allies agree to invade France from the east. 1814 Mar – Wellington captures Bordeaux; allies enter Paris. 1815 Mar – Napoleon returns to France from exile and enters Paris; Austria, Prussia, Russia and Britain unite against Napoleon and Britain promises £5m subsidies; June – Wellington and Blucher defeat Napoleon at Waterloo and this decisive action effectively ends hostilities. 3. War with the United States of America, June 1812–Jan 1815 1812 June – US Congress declares war, claiming harassment by Britain and British support for Indian tribes blocking westward development; Aug – Detroit surrendered to British forces, preventing US attack on Canada; Oct – US defeated by British force under Isaac Brock at Queenston Heights. 1813 Apr – US captures York, Toronto; indecisive naval encounters, involving raiding parties on both sides; US unable to launch decisive attack on Canada; Sept – US reoccupies Detroit; Nov – British force defeats US at Chrysler’s Farm, Montreal; Dec – US forces burn Newark; British forces burn Buffalo in reprisal and take Fort Niagara. 1814 July – Indecisive British and US attacks in the Great Lakes; Aug – British force takes Washington, burning main buildings. 1815 Jan – Unsuccessful British attack on New Orleans before news of peace reached the area. 4. ‘Opium War’ with China, 1839–42 1839 July – hostilities flare up after Chinese confiscation of British opium stocks. Aug – British capture Hong Kong. 1840 Canton and Chusan seized by British and ransomed for 6m dollars. 5. First Afghan War, 1839­42 1838­9 Fearing growing Russian influence in the area, and especially an attack on India, Britain planned an invasion of Afghanistan, hoping to make it a pro­British buffer state to repel Russian challenge and aggression. 21,000 British and Indian troops set out for Afghanistan in December 1838 1839 April – Kandahar captured August – Kabul fell. The pro­British Shuja Shah Durrani installed as ruler and a British occupation of Afghanistan began
16 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain 1840­1 Shuja Shah not able to build any support beyond that provided by the British 1841 November – Kabul rose in revolt December – William Hay Macartney, Britain’s chief representative in Kabul, was murdered. British authority increasingly weakened 1842 January – after negotiations, the Afghans agreed that British army could leave Kabul peacefully. The army was attacked by Afghan tribesmen as they tried to navigate snow­ bound passes. Almost all of army of General William Elphinstone was either massacred or froze to death January­February – British troops regroup in India for reprisals April – Troops under General George Pollock fight their way into Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass August – Pollock won a victory at the Battle of Gandamak September – Further victories against the Afghans preceded the sacking of Kabul, after which British troops withdrew to India 6. Crimean War with Russia, Mar 1854–Mar 1856 1854 Sept – British and French troops land in Crimea and win Battle of the Alma but victory not followed up. Oct – Siege of Sebastopol begun. Battle of Balaclava results in allied victory but at great cost, including the loss of the Light Brigade; Nov – further allied victory at Inkerman. 1855 Jan – Piedmont joins allies against Russia; Sept – Sebastopol finally falls. 7. Second Anglo­Chinese War, 1856–60 1856 Oct – hostilities commence after Chinese authorities arrest 12 crew members of a British registered vessel. British squadron bombards Chinese forts in Canton river. 1857 Dec – Anglo­French force attacks and captures Canton. 1858 May – capture of Tientsin. 1860 Sept – Anglo­French attack on Peking, burning Emperor’s summer palace. 8. Ashanti War, 1873­4 1873 British purchase of what had been the Dutch Gold Coast (1871) included the port of Elmina, which the Ashanti state (in modern Ghana), claimed as theirs. They invaded what the British claimed as their territory 1874 January­February ­ Troops under Sir Garnet Wolseley, British administrator in Gold Coast, won victories against the Ashanti at Amoaful and Ordahsu. February ­ Ashanti capital, Kumasi, captured.
17 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain 9. Second Afghan War, 1878­81 1878 November ­ Fearing growth of Russian influence, and after Afghan Amir refused to receive a British envoy of Afghanistan, Britain declared war Three British armies crossed into Afghanistan December – the Amir Sher Ali fled the country 1879 May ­ Britain signs a peace agreement (Treaty of Gandamak – see above) with the new Amir, Yakub Khan September ­ British representative in Kabul, Louis Pierre Cavagnari, murdered. October – British army under Maj­Gen Sir Frederick Roberts defeats Afghan army at Char Asiab, occupies Kabul and expels Yakub Khan. December – British install Yakub Khan’s cousin Abdur Rahman Khan as Afghan Amir 1880 July ­ after Ayub Khan institutes a revolt against British control, thus beginning a civil war, a British force defeated at Maiwand and a siege of Kandahar begins September – Roberts defeats Ayub Khan’s forces at Battle of Kandahar, in effect defeating Ayub Khan’s rising. Abdur Rahman confirms the terms of the Treaty of Gandamak and, with British support and subsidies, remains ruler of Afghanistan until 1901 10. Zulu War, 1878­9 1878: Zulus refuse to accept establishment of a British Protectorate over Zululand (Dec) and hostilities begin 1879: Zulus defeat a British force at Isandhlwana (Jan). This represented a blow to British prestige. Defence of Rorke’s Drift prevents Natal being captured by Zulus. British force, commanded by Lord Chelmsford, defeats Zulu Chief Cetshwayo at Ulundi (July). Decisive victory was a prelude to the forcible break­up of Zululand into thirteen small kingdoms. 11. First Boer War, 1880­81 1880: Transvaal declared itself independent of British rule (Dec) Boers ambushed a British detachment at Potchefstroom (Dec) which led to a series of sieges of British garrisons. 1881: British forces under Gen Sir George Colley fail to relieve British garrisons at Battles of Laing’s Nek (Jan) and Ingogo River (otherwise Schuinshoogte) (Feb). The British suffered a major defeat at Majuba Hill (Feb), where Colley was killed. Armistice signed, Britain withdrew. 12. Egyptian War, 1882 The Egyptian army officer Col Ahmad Urabi led a successful nationalist revolt against the Khedive of Egypt (1881)
18 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain 1882: Britain and France confirmed to the Khedive that the supported his authority (Jan). Britain and France sent warships to Alexandria (May). After a riot in Alexandria (Jun), British warships began a bombardment and British marines quickly occupied the city (Jul), in response to which Urabi declared war on Britain. A large British army under Sir Garnett Wolseley entered the Suez Canal area (Aug). He crushed Urabi’s forces at the Battle of Tel­el­Kebir (Sept). Urabi was exiled and British troops occupied Egypt thereafter. 13. Sudanese War (Mahdist War), 1883­5 1883: War began when an Egyptian military force, led by the British officer General William Hicks, was sent to Khartoum to defeat a nationalist and Islamic revolt against Egypt led by Muhammad Ahmad, known as the Mahdi (July). Hicks was defeated by the Mahdi’s forces at El Obeid (Sept). 1884: Britain and Egypt decided to withdraw troops and leave Sudan to a kind of self­ government. Gen Charles Gordon sent to Khartoum to evacuate British subjects and bring the Egyptian garrison back (Feb). His decisions to complete a complete evacuation of all who wished to leave Sudan, and then to defeat the Mahdi, who he believed might destabilize Egypt, was highly risky. However, it received public backing in Britain and Gladstone’s government. The Mahdi began a siege of Khartoum (Mar) 1885: British government sent a force under Sir Garnet Wolseley to relieve Khartoum but, after substantial delays, it arrived two days after Khartoum had fallen to the Mahdi and Gordon himself killed (Jan). British imperial forces were withdrawn from Sudan which remained under Mahdist control, although the Mahdi himself died soon after the fall of Khartoum 14. Sudanese War, 1896­9 War began after Italy was defeated by the Ethopians at Adowa. Britain, increasingly concerned about French ambitions in the Upper Nile, decided to protect its imperial assets, renew its presence in the region and reassert the Egyptian claim to authority over Sudan. In practice, this meant British authority in the area. 1896: Kitchener arrived in Khartoum at head of an Anglo­British force supported by gunboats in the Nile (March). His force defeated the Mahdists (see Section 13 above) at Ferkeh (Jun) 1898: After Britain reasserts Egyptian claims to Sudan, Kitchener began a second Expedition. Mahdist forces defeated at Battle of Atbara (Apr). A more decisive victory followed at the Battle of Omdurman (near Khartoum) (Sept). When British and French forces faced each other at the fort of Fashoda on the Upper Nile, war between the two nations over imperial domination in north­eastern Africa, briefly threatened. French withdrawal (Nov) was interpreted as a diplomatic triumph for Britain and demonstrated British strength. 1899: Final defeat of Mahdist forces at Battle of Umm Diwayykarat (Nov) in south of Sudan. Their leader, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, was killed. British now able to claim dual control of Sudan with Egypt.
19 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain 15. Second Boer War, 1899­1902 War began over the question of rights of ‘uitlanders’ (foreigners) in the Boer states of Transvaal and Orange Free State. Uitlanders had settled in large numbers to profit from opportunities following the discovery of diamonds and gold. Boers feared a loss of control over South Africa in the face of massive, and largely British migration. 1899: Britain sent an ultimatum to Boers, demanding that uitlanders in Transvaal be Treated equally in all respects (Sept). Boers demanded withdrawal of British troops from Transvaal border. When neither demand accepted, war was declared (Oct). Boers crossed rapidly into Cape Colony and Natal. Sieges began of the British garrisons at Ladysmith, Mafeking and Kimberley (Oct­Dec). British, under Gen Redvers Buller, responsed with offensives aimed at breaking the sieges. These were unsuccessful. During so­called ‘Black Week’ (Dec), they were defeated at Battles of Stormberg, Magersfontein and Colenso, though the Boers did not follow up their victories. 1900: Gen Frederick Roberts took over command from Buller (Jan) and British reinforcements sent to South Africa. Battle of Spion Kop (Jan) resulted in a further defeat for Gen Buller. Roberts effected the relief of Kimberley and defeated Boer commander Piet Cronje at Paadeberg on the Modder River (Feb). Buller relieved Ladysmith (Feb). Roberts moved into Orange Free State, defeating the Boers at the Battle of Poplar Grove and capturing Bloomfontein (Mar). Mafeking was relieved and Orange Free State formally annexed (May). Pretoria, capital of the Transvaal was captured in June and the British declared the South African Republic to have been formally annexed. Boers changed tactics after these defeats and concentrated on guerrilla warfare. Very few formal battles were fought after March but mobile, opportunistic Boers detachments were able to rely on considerable local support to delay a complete British victory. The Boer commander Christiaan De Wet proved both elusive to British troops and successful at inflicting short­term damage. The British used ‘Scorched Earth’ tactics when dealing with areas not under their control and protected communications with well­armed ‘blockhouses’. They also instituted ‘Concentration Camps’ for holding Boer supporters, including women and children. 1901: Operating from Orange Free State, de Wet launched an invasion of Cape Colony but with only limited success (Jan). Although the Boers’ guerrilla campaigns Continued and they felt confident enough to reject peace terms, Britain gradually subdued most of the remaining resistance. 1902: Final surrender of Boer guerrillas (May), rapidly leading to peace negotiations. 16. Tibetan War, 1903­4 The war came about for several reasons but central to British concerns was the belief that China was about to cede Tibet to the Russians, thus providing them with a direct route into India. Britain attempted to negotiate with both China and Tibet with a view to getting a settlement which would prevent Russian advances. When Tibet refused to participate, Britain planned a military expedition aimed at achieving defensible territorial boundaries to secure India 1903: Col Francis Younghusband crossed into Tibet with a large force, largely of British­Indian and Gurkha troops (Dec)
20 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain 1904: Brig­Gen Macdonald defeated Tibetan forces at the Battle of Guru (Mar). This was followed by a series of advances over very difficult terrain, including the capture of the fortress at Gyantse Dzong (Jul). The occupation of Lhasa soon followed (Aug) and hostilities came to an end.
21 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain F.iii Major colonial acquisitions, 1780–1914 (a) Africa 1806, Cape Colony; 1808, Sierra Leone; 1810 Mauritius; 1816, The Gambia; 1821, Gold Coast; 1843, Natal; 1861, Lagos. 1871 Griquanaland West (South Africa); 1877 Transvaal (Boer Republic); 1882, Egypt (occupation); 1884, Basutoland; 1885, Bechuanaland; 1887, British Somaliland; 1889, Northern Rhodesia (Chartered Trading Company); 1889, Southern Rhodesia (Chartered Trading Company); 1890, Zanzibar; 1891, Nyasaland; 1894, Uganda; 1895, East African Protectorate; 1899, Sudan (linked with British rule in Egypt); 1900, Nigeria; 1902, Orange Free State; 1902, Transvaal; 1903, Swaziland (b) The Americas 1797, Trinidad; 1803, Tobago and St Lucia; 1814 Demerara, Essequibo, Berbice; 1833, Falkland Islands; 1858, British Columbia; 1855, Newfoundland; 1884, British Honduras (as separate from Jamaica); 1885, Windward Islands (became a federal colony) (c) Asia 1786, Penang; 1795, Ceylon; 1819, Singapore; 1824, Malacca; 1824, western Burma outside Irrawaddy delta; 1839, Aden; 1842, Hong Kong; 1846, Labuan (North Borneo); 1852, Burma (Irrawaddy delta); 1861, Kowloon; 1887, Maldive Islands; 1888, Sarawak; 1893, North Borneo (d) Australasia and Oceania 1788, New South Wales; 1804 Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania) settled (declared separate colony 1825); 1829, Western Australia; 1836, South Australia; 1840, New Zealand; 1850, Victoria; 1859, Queensland; 1874, Fiji; 1888, Christmas Island; 1888, Cook Islands; 1888, Papua; 1892, Gilbert & Ellis Islands; 1893, Solomon Islands; 1900, Tonga nb. Britain claimed responsibility for whole continent of Australasia in 1829. (e) India 1793, Bengal; 1802, Poona; 1843, Sind; 1849, Punjab; 1853, Nagpur; 1856, Oudh (f) Europe (g) 1878, Cyprus
22 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain F.iv Landmarks in colonial constitutional development 1. General applicability: 1865: Colonial Laws Validity Act confirmed that all legislation constitutionally passed by a British colony was valid, except in instances where the UK Parliament had enacted legislation whose applicability extended beyond the UK and which contradicted colonial legislation 1907: Colonial Conference held in London (April­May). (a) The colonies recognized their on­going role within the British Empire (b) The colonies also asserted the extent of their freedom of action, not least in sending troops to support conflicts in which the United Kingdom was participating. (c) The status of ‘Dominion’ was extended to Australia, New Zealand and Newfoundland. Canada had been a Dominion since 1867 (see below). Although the change of title implied no new powers, it conveyed the symbolic recognition that these were colonies which were specially highly regarded and well­trusted by the ‘mother country’ to manage their internal affairs efficiently and independently (d) There should be further meetings at regular intervals, primarily to give the Dominions opportunity to be consulted on the objectives and priorities of UK foreign policy 2. India (a) India Act, 1784. (i) establishment of a Board of Control to superintend British territorial possession in the East Indies; (ii) Board of Control, whose members to be ministers of the Crown, to superintend political and military affairs of the East India Company; (iii) powers of the Governor­General increased; (iv) patronage remains in control of Directors of the Company. (b) 1813: Renewal of East India Company Charter. Trading monopoly ended but trading and administrative functions retained. (c) India Act, 1858. (i) all territories and properties of the East India Company transferred to the Crown; (ii) Governor­General becomes Viceroy of India. (d) 1858: Government of India Act (i) Powers previously held by the East India Company formally transferred to the United Kingdom government. A Secretary of State for India would, within the British Cabinet, preside over an ‘India Office’ in London
23 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain (ii) The Secretary of State for India to be advised by a ‘Council of India’. On it sat 15 British citizens, seven of whom were elected from under the East India Company’s Court of Directors and eight of whom were appointed by the Crown (in practice by the UK government) (iii) The title of Governor­General abolished and the head of the government in India was a ‘Viceroy’ (e) 1861: Indian Councils Act (i) What had previously been the Viceroy’s Executive Council became, in effect, a ‘Cabinet’ with the official title of Imperial Legislative Council (ii) Five ‘executive’ members of the Council each headed an Indian government portfolio: home affairs; revenue; military matters; finance; law. Three executive members were appointed by the Secretary of State for India and two by the Crown (From 1869, all five became Crown appointees). The Commander­in­Chief of the time also sat as a member ex officio (iii) The Viceroy could appoint additional (‘legislative’) members of Council, up to a maximum of twelve. Native Indians (who were mostly princes and other wealthy Indian nobility) could be appointed to the Council (iv) The Viceroy could overrule decisions of the Legislative Council if he so decided (v) Provincial Councils were established for Madras and Bombay. These Councils were headed by a Governor and an appointed Executive Council. These could pass laws relevant to the local area. Further provincial councils were established later. 1876: Victoria declared Empress of India by the Royal Titles Act 1892: Indian Councils Act (i) The number of ‘legislative’ members of the Council was to be not fewer than ten or more than sixteen (ii) These members were for the first time permitted to express their views on financial statements prepared by the executive. Financial accounts for the present year and budgets for the following year were to be presented to Council (iii) The principle of election for Council members was introduced 1901: North­West Frontier Province created out of the Punjab. Its capital was Peshawar 1909: Indian Councils Act (Morley­Minto Reforms) 1. The number of members of the Legislative Council was increased from 16 to 60 2. Similar increases were made to the membership of the Provincial Councils 3. Four categories of membership were established: a) ex­officio (Governor General and members of Executive Councils; b) government officials nominated by the Viceroy; c)
24 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain members appointed by the Viceroy who were not officials; d) members freely elected by the different classes in the native Indian population 4. In the central Legislative Council, ‘official’ members should always be in the majority; in Provincial Councils, ‘non­official’ members would be in the majority 5. An electorate separate from Hindus was created for Muslims Members of Provincial Legislative Councils were for the first time permitted to discuss budgets, propose amendments and exercise their right to vote. They were not allowed to debate certain topics, including the armed forces and foreign affairs. 3. Canada (a) Canada Act, 1791. (i) establishment of two separate provinces: Upper (Ontario) and Lower (Quebec); (ii) each province to have legislative assembly elected every seven years and empowered to vote annual supplies; (iii) each province to have a legislative council appointed by the government; members to serve for life; (iv) each province to have an executive council, nominated to assist the Lieutenant­General under the Governor­General. (b) The Durham Report, 1839. Recommendations after investigation into disturbances in 1837: (i) union of the two provinces; (ii) ministers to be responsible for their own legislature; (iii) Governor to rule with legislature and Britain not to interfere ‘except on points involving strictly imperial interests’. (c) Canada Act, 1840. United provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. (d) 1847: Canada granted responsible government. (e) British North America Act, 1867. (i) established a federal ‘Dominion’ of Canada comprising Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; (ii) mother country retained control only of foreign relations; (iii) Manitoba and Northwest Territories added in 1870, British Columbia in 1871. (f) 1870: Manitoba and Northwest Territories joined the Canadian Confederation (g) 1871: British Columbia joined the Canadian Confederation
25 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain (h) 1871: British North America Act (i) The Canadian Parliament given the right to establish new Provinces which would form part of the Dominion of Canada (ii) With the consent of a provincial legislature, the territory of a Province could be increased, diminished or otherwise altered (iii) The Canadian Parliament may provide for the administration and good governance of any Canadian territory not designated as a Province (i) 1873: Prince Edward Island joined the Canadian Confederation (j) 1880: Northwest Territories, when known as the Arctic Archipelago, transferred from UK to Canadian rule (k) 1898: Yukon Territory separated from the Canadian NorthWest Territories (l) 1905: Alberta and Saskatchewan separated from the Northwest Territories (m) 1907: Having ceded much of their land and populations over the previous thirty years, Northwest Territories lost its representation in the Canadian House of Commons. This was not restored until 1947. 4. Australia (a) 1850 Australian Constitutions Act: (i) created the mechanism whereby the states of New South Wales, South Australia, Tasmania and Western Australia could establish their own local parliaments (ii) separated Victoria from New South Wales. Victoria was designated as a state in its own right (b) 1859: Queensland separated from New South Wales and was designated as a state in its own right (c) 1900: The Commonwealth of Australia Act created a Federal Commonwealth (d) 1901:The Australian Commonwealth came into being on 1 January, comprising the six states of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, Tasmania and Western Australia. The capital was Sydney and the Commonwealth Parliament sat in Melbourne (e) 1907: Australia officially designated as a ‘Dominion’ within the British Empire, retaining internal self­rule under ‘responsible’ internal self­government (f) 1908: Resolved to create a new capital for Australia in Canberra. The Federal Legislature moved to Canberra in 1927 (g) 1911: A ‘Northern Territory’ was separated from the state of South Australia. It did not become a separate state, being directly under the control of the Commonwealth of Australia 5. New Zealand (a) Treaty of Waitangi, 1840.
26 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain (i) British sovereignty declared; (ii) Maoris on North Island ceded sovereignty rights and were granted by Britain full, undisputed rights over their lands and fisheries. (b) 1846: New Zealand became a Crown Colony with its own constitution. Auckland established as the national capital. Only those who could write English could vote. The Constitution was never fully implemented (c) 1852: Second Constitution issued, which confirmed New Zealand as internally self­ governing: (i) A national General Assembly was created, comprising Legislative Council appointed by the Governor and a House of Representatives. The Assembly could pass any laws but the Governor could veto legislation and, in extreme cases, the UK Parliament could over­rule the Governor (ii) The House of Representatives was directly elected by adult males who could write English and who owned property worth at least £50 a year (iii) New Zealand divided into six provinces: Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, Otago. Each province had its own legislature, known as Provincial Councils, although the Governor had the power to veto provincial legislation. (iv) Separate Maori districts were to be created. Here Maori laws and customs were to be preserved, although Governors did not enforce these (d) 1877: Provinces abolished as legislative entities to be replaced by elected borough and county councils (e) 1907: New Zealand designated as a ‘Dominion’ within the British Empire, retaining internal self­rule under ‘responsible’ internal self­government 6. South Africa (a) 1872: Cape Colony granted internal self­government status (b) 1893:Natal was granted internal self­government status (c) 1906:Transvaal was granted internal self­government status (d) 1907: Orange River Colony (Orange Free State) was granted internal self­government status (e) 1910:Union of South Africa created under the South Africa Act (1909) (i) The previously separate colonies of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal and Orange Free State were incorporated into a ‘Union’. Previous colonial parliaments were abolished and replaced by ‘provincial councils’. South Africa, therefore, did not become a Federal State (ii) South Africa became a self­governing Dominion within the British Empire (iii) The UK monarch was represented by a Governor­General
27 © Pearson Education Limited 2012 Evans, The Shaping of Modern Britain (iv) South Africa was ruled by a Parliament comprising two Houses: the House of Assembly and the Senate
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