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Racial and Ethnic Relations NINTH EDITION Chapter 9 Puerto Rican and Cuban Americans Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Big Picture Questions • What roles have Puerto Rican and Cuban Americans played in building this country’s wealth and institutions? • What are the persisting barriers to social and economic mobility of Puerto Rican and Cuban Americans? • How would assimilation and power-conflict theorists explain current Puerto Rican and Cuban American socioeconomic realities? Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Puerto Rico and Cuba • Spanish-speaking islands in the Antilles • Point of origin for large numbers of Latinos/Latinas • Puerto Rico All Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens, but Puerto Rico is not a state Island’s future debated; 3 possibilities -- Independence, statehood, and commonwealth • Cuba “[Oscillation] between a corrupt democracy and dictatorship” Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. PUERTO RICO • Borinquén Original name for Puerto Rico • Indigenous population in 1493 when Spanish imperialists arrived Used as forced labor in mines Genocidal decline - Forced labor, disease, brutal killings, violent suppression of rebellion - Enslaved Africans imported • Proportion of whites and people of color almost equal People product of several racial and ethnic heritages Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. FROM SPANISH TO U.S. RULE • 1897: Puerto Ricans pressured Spanish into granting autonomy • 1899: Spanish-American War Treaty Spain gave Puerto Rico to America • 1917: Jones Act awarded U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans • 1940s: Operation Bootstrap -- Program designed by Puerto Rican governor to bring economic development by attracting U.S. corporations • Since 1970s: high unemployment encouraging migration to mainland Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. MIGRATION TO MAINLAND • 1920s: Significant immigration to U.S. mainland began 1940: numbered almost 70,000 Over next two decades: increased to 887,000 • Since 1970 involved in return or circular migration Fled island’s economic crises and encountered problems of unemployment and poverty on the mainland in addition to racial discrimination Late 2000s: Half of all Puerto Ricans resided in mainland communities, where they made up about 9% of all Latinos/Latinas Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Current Issues • U.S. Congress recently ended the tax incentive encouraging U.S. corporations to locate in Puerto • October 2009: Thousands of workers took to the streets to protest government employee cutbacks, which had brought the unemployment rate to at least 15 percent Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Joined by Other Latinos/Latinas: Diversity in the New York Area • By 1990s: city Anglo population decreased significantly; now about 35% of city’s population • Early 2000s: Latino/Latina population of Long Island increased to 282,693 (more than 10% of population) Of that, a significant portion is Puerto Rican, Mexican, and Cuban Others: Caribbean or Central or South American origin Increasingly Salvadoran, Colombians, and Dominicans • Latino/Latina diversity has encouraged panHispanic (pan-Latino/a) consciousness Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. PREJUDICES AND STEREOTYPES • Puerto Ricans long suffered racial stereotypes similar to Mexicans Images as lazy, submissive, emotional Often referred to derogatorily as spics and viewed as criminals Stereotype of criminals and drug users influence police actions in Puerto Rican communities • Underrepresented on television programs Esai Morales co-founder of Washington’s National Hispanic Foundation for the Arts Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Other Negative Images • Culture of Poverty – anthropologist Oscar Lewis Stereotyped idea that poor people develop a defective and deviant subculture • Frequently, whites emphasize accents of Latinos and Latinas as problematic when they do not do the same for those with other types of accents • Image of lazy Puerto Ricans on welfare still found at high levels of government • Whites couple negative images of Latinos/Latinas with fearful views of immigrants Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Color Coding and White Prejudice • In Puerto Rico As in other Latin countries, a spectrum of racial categories based on multiple physical and cultural characteristics is recognized Society is more integrated than mainland society Dark-skinned individuals still face significant discrimination at times There is often an attempt to disguise a particular family’s African ancestry • Color Coding Social stratification or discrimination based on skin color Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. ECONOMIC AND RELATED CONDITIONS: THE MAINLAND • Discrimination common for Puerto Rican immigrants Those with darker skin suffered the most • Puerto Ricans brought many talents and skills Yet, skills went unused on the mainland • Unemployment much higher for mainland Puerto Ricans than for white workers Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Occupational Distribution (2008) Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Employment Discrimination • Institutionalized discrimination long rooted in color coding and linguistic prejudice • Underrepresented in government jobs relative to their population percentage in New York City Institutionalized discrimination seen in height and weight requirements that disqualify Puerto Rican applicants • Employment opportunities heavily shaped by discrimination White job applicants with felony records as likely to be called back as Puerto Ricans with no felony records Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Industrial Restructuring • A variety of changing structural factors in the economy has contributed to high unemployment New York City moved from industrial to serviceoriented economy • Presence of employed workers is crucial to a community’s survival Unemployed Puerto Ricans reside next to employed blue-collar workers who help them and maintain the community’s social institutions - Mainland Puerto Ricans relatively poor compared to other U.S. groups Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Housing Problems • Housing discrimination a significant problem for Americans of Puerto Rican descent Have been excluded from most good housing markets Compared with other major groups, - More likely to live in dilapidated housing Use a larger percentage of their income for housing • In recent years, Puerto Rican neighborhoods have experienced gentrification • Latinos/Latinas pressed New York’s attorney general for action against housing discrimination Discrimination by local officials still persists despite even federal measures to stop it Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. EDUCATION • 2008 American Community Survey Nearly 73% of Puerto Ricans had completed high school compared with 90% of whites High dropout/pushout rates remain a nationwide problem • Low college graduation rate for mainland Puerto Ricans restricts socioeconomic mobility • Puerto Rican parents struggle against an educational system that has typically failed their children Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Barriers to Social and Economic Mobility • Few Puerto Ricans in influential positions in education Puerto Rican communities have little control over educational decision-making Curriculum often based on assumption that Puerto Ricans are culturally or linguistically deficient • Public schools are de facto segregated Racially segregated schools have negative implications Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Language • Few schools today are structured to deal with nonEnglish-speaking students • In current atmosphere of hostility to bilingual education, limited English proficiency creates barriers for Latinos/Latinas Often inaccurately assigned to low-ability groups Puerto Rican students do less well than white students on conventional achievement tests • Hermán La Fontaine -- viable “definition of cultural pluralism” “Must include the concept that our language and our culture will be given equal status to that of the majority population” Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Official English Policies and Spanish Speakers • Support for English as the official language has grown dramatically in recent years • Xenophobic Americans often praise English-only policies as a means to unify diverse groups and promote “traditional” (European) values Educator Catherine Walsh: “[E]fforts toward linguistic cohesion resonate with a kind of colonial domination . . . that threatens to silence the less powerful” Language reflects and imbeds a group’s history and culture and is inseparable from group and personal identity Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. POLITICS • Among mainland Puerto Ricans, voting rates Have been relatively low Have increased since 1990, especially in areas where government is responsive to community needs • Election to major political office has come slowly Late 2000s: Still just 3 Puerto Ricans in U.S. House of Representatives and none in U.S. Senate • 2009: Sonia Sotomayor became the very first Puerto Rican (and first Latina) on the U.S. Supreme Court Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Local and State Government • In recent decades, Puerto Ricans have served on numerous city councils and as mayors of small towns and a few cities • Long-term effects of institutional discrimination seen in state and city government Many report poor treatment by government and private agencies • 1980s: Puerto Rican governor announced campaign to register mainland voters, thus expanding their political power Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Politics and Recent Intergroup Conflict • In New York City, Puerto Ricans and African Americans make up about half the population Long history of successful coalitions and periodic tensions Latino/Latina voters critical to election of David Dinkins (1989) – 1st black mayor Al Sharpton assisted in protest of U.S. Navy test bombing of a Puerto Rican island Puerto Rican mayoral candidate, Fernando Ferrer, supported by blacks Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. PROTEST • In Puerto Rico, protest against colonial status periodically punctuated U.S. rule Puerto Ricans fought hard to retain their culture • Pro-statehood sentiment on the island has increased over the decades Supporters of statehood argue commonwealth status is second-class Opponents fear economic and cultural changes of statehood - Rubén Berríos Martínez, president of Puerto Rican Independence Party: “Assimilation is unacceptable to Puerto Ricans” Recent meeting in Panama supported independence Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. On the Mainland • Arriving poor and stigmatized as inferior, Puerto Ricans developed significant organizations to cope with discrimination and other barriers Latino-Justice PRLDEF (formerly the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund) National Puerto Rican Coalition (NPRC) Young Lords were long involved in social action • In recent decades, numerous Puerto Rican organizations have worked for better quality of life and increased participation in political process Social and cultural clubs seek to preserve elements of traditional culture Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. More Community Protest • Puerto Rican communities have long protested discrimination by local whites Latinidad - Idea of Latino/Latina cultural unity in struggles against gentrification • Some protest movements have brought significant changes Founding of community college in South Bronx and supportive programs at City University of New York • Coalitions between grassroots organizations and established groups have been created to improve economic conditions • Puerto Rican Day Parades held since 1950s Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. RELIGION • Catholicism has long been main religion among Puerto Ricans • Puerto Rican and Cubans developed distinctive branching religions • On mainland, Puerto Rican Catholics led by nonPuerto Rican clergy Latino/Latina caucuses have pressed for Spanish-language services and more Latino priests Many left for evangelical Protestant churches - Warmer reception and community feeling Many communities now have numerous evangelical churches Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. ASSIMILATION AND COLONIALISM • Over the decades Puerto Ricans have resisted complete acculturation • There is continuing racialization of Puerto Ricans by whites • Overt job discrimination appears to be declining, though covert and subtle discrimination remains • Structural assimilation at primary-group level and marital assimilation have not reached levels comparable to those of most European immigrants Generational conflict is sometimes a problem Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Power-Conflict Perspectives • Anglo-conformity pressure on Puerto Ricans has been heavy • Assimilation into economic and political institutions relatively slow • Analysts of U.S. treatment of Puerto Ricans generally concerned more about negative effects of racial discrimination, unemployment, and deteriorating housing on the lives and futures of Puerto Ricans • External colonialism: still a U.S. “possession” • Internal colonialism: “urban enterprise zones” in numerous cities exploit Latino and black communities Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. CUBAN AMERICANS: PATTERNS OF IMMIGRATION • One of the largest Latino/Latina groups • Like Puerto Ricans, group has its roots in an important Caribbean island close to U.S. • Most migration stemmed from political upheaval or economic distress on the island • Early Cuban immigrants were committed to Cuba’s independence from Spain and contributed to U.S. efforts in war with Spain Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. History • Cuba became U.S. protectorate in 1902 • Political turbulence accompanying succession of repressive dictators brought many refugees to U.S. • Large numbers immigrated to U.S. after 1959 revolution of Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista Victory brought hope for economic and political reform Threat to U.S. businesses, suspicion of communism, and Castro’s declarations of non-tolerance led to break in diplomatic relations with U.S. Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Immigration Waves • 1st major immigration after revolution was Cuba’s moneyed elite • 2nd wave began in 1961: middle- and upper-income who chose exile rather than life under Castro • Early groups composed of lighter-skinned Cubans, and Florida was usual destination • Immigrants and U.S. viewed Cubans as refugees who intended to return when Castro was overthrown • 3rd group arrived between 1965 and 1970s Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Mariel Immigrants • Mariel Boatlift 4th group of 125,000 Cubans who came to U.S. in 1980 Popular stereotypes characterized them as “undesirables” - - Less education and containing large percentage of criminals and mentally ill, but latter claims greatly exaggerated Some left voluntarily; others, considered undesirable by Cuban government, forced to leave Key difference: Unlike earlier immigrants, approximately 40% were darker skinned • About 1.6 million Cubans in the U.S. today Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. INTERGROUP CONFLICT • Major result of Cuban migrations is significant change in population of Florida By 1980s, Latinos/Latinas majority in Miami • Tension accelerated between Cuban immigrants and black residents of Miami Blacks felt Cubans getting too much government assistance and taking jobs Today, larger and generally more affluent Cuban American community in south Florida controls numerous businesses; many prefer to hire Cuban Americans, which creates friction with the black population Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. INTERGROUP CONFLICT, continued • Cuban American leaders are critical of the friendliness of some black leaders, inside and outside the United States, to the Cuban Communist government • Cuban American leaders angered the black community when they ignored visiting black officials • Political tensions between African Americans and Cuban Americans have surfaced periodically in presidential elections since 2000 • Differential treatment of immigrants from Cuba and Haiti has fueled significant tensions between Miami’s Cuban and Haitian communities Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Racial Division Among Cuban Americans • Cuban American population diverse in terms of racial gradient central to U.S. society • Before revolution, Cuban society segregated Lighter-skinned Cubans had more residential and economic privileges than darker-skinned Cubans with more African ancestry Castro decreed equality between the two • In U.S. immigrants faced a world in which societal privileges were linked to racial classification Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION • Cuban Americans sometimes stereotyped as anti-Castro militants or extremists • Some analysts stereotyped Cuban Americans as predominantly successful group that does not face discrimination Susan Eckstein - “Anglo upper class and the Anglo professional, and business community excluded Cuban immigrants from their informal social circles and . . . economic interest groups” • Like other Latinos/Latinas, Cubans have experienced discrimination at hands of Anglo whites Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THE ECONOMIC SITUATION • Cuban immigrants experienced dramatic decline in occupational status when they entered U.S. economy • Increased Cuban presence in Florida elevated Miami’s importance as center for Latin American and other international commerce • Compared with other Latino/Latina groups, Cuban Americans enjoy greater economic success • Motivated by concern to “fight Communism,” largescale U.S. programs played a major role in advancing structural assimilation of these immigrants Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Employment • Wide range of occupations among Cuban immigrants has facilitated development of large and interdependent local economy Appeals to group solidarity helped some businesspeople exploit their compatriots as low-wage workers • Another factor of mobility is economic organization of the Cuban family Gainful employment of women became economic necessity for upward mobility in U.S. • Among Latino/Latina groups, Cubans have relatively high levels of economic success Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Occupational Distribution (2008) Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. POLITICS • Expectation of short-lived Castro regime led most post-1959 Cuban immigrants to remain politically inactive in U.S. for some years • Since 1980s Cubans have become very politically active 2/3 of adults are citizens and they register and vote in large numbers • Many remain involved in politics of Cuba • Cuban American National Foundation (CANF) Influential group established in 1981 Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The U.S. and Cuba • Cuban community currently divided over proper U.S. government response to Cuban government Political division substantially a result of different views and experiences of immigrants who came before 1980 and those who came after • In the past, some engaged in paramilitary training and terrorist acts against Castro Exiles recruited by CIA involved in unsuccessful Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961 • Collapse of Soviet Union brought severe economic hardships to Cuba’s people Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. RELIGION • Santería A type of syncretic religion that included aspects of both Catholic and older African religions • Surveys from late 2000s found Cuban Americans less likely than other major Latino/Latina groups to say religion is most important thing in their lives • Less opposed to abortion, but more opposed to gay marriage, than Puerto Ricans or Mexican Americans • Pan-Latino/Latina diversity leaves some Cuban parishioners feeling alienated because of different approaches to Catholic religion Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. ASSIMILATION OR COLONIALISM • Like other Latinos/Latinas, Cubans have faced prejudice and discrimination, including language discrimination and restriction or exclusion in Anglo-dominated organizations and institutions • Identificational assimilation has come slowly, especially for older Cubans who consider themselves exiles Many of those say they have a “fractured identity” Others, especially those who left as children or were born in the U.S., say they have a double identity Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Identity • Identification of Cuban American women and African American women African American women felt they were “American,” but felt they were not seen as such by Anglo whites Cuban American women did not feel they were American and did not think Anglo whites saw them as American • Preservation of Cuban culture and identity provides a foundation for economic and political integration in U.S. society • Over time, Cuban immigrants and their children have made significant economic achievements Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Cross-Generational Differences • Cultural assimilation pressures created crossgenerational problems similar to earlier European immigrants • 1990s--Strategy Research Corporation (SRC) Ranked Cubans least culturally assimilated of major Latino/Latina groups, based on language use and behavioral and attitudinal measures • More recently, however, mid-2000s survey in Miami found that nearly half of Cuban Americans spoke English outside their homes and most worked with non-Cubans • Recent U.S. Census survey also found that an overwhelming majority of Cuban Americans under age 18 spoke English well Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Adaptation • Cuban Americans especially in south Florida adapted selectively to U.S. • Nonetheless, younger generations are assimilating more rapidly than Cuban-born to the dominant culture • Dominant Euro-American culture does regularly make some modest adjustments to new groups entering the society Latino/Latina music and foods have become popular Chain retailers have discovered this group’s buying power Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Power-Conflict Perspective • No one has applied a sustained power-conflict perspective to the case of Cuban Americans • Opportunities and accomplishments of U.S.-born generations (lighter-skinned majority) seem in some ways more similar to those of older white ethnic groups • Substantially greater political and civic integration with dominant group can occur only if later generations disperse residentially • There are also major language-related obstacles to the full cultural and structural assimilation of Cuban Americans Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.