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Hwa Chong Institution
Centre for Scholastic Excellence
Humanities Programme@ High School
TOPIC: Global Politics in the Contemporary World
THE ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT
REASONS FOR ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT:
1. due to colonial legacy:
- The heart of the Arab-Israeli conflict in the Middle East is an area referred to as Palestine
claimed by both the Jews of Israel and by the Arabs of Palestine.
- The origins of the conflict lies in the actions of the colonial government of Palestine - Britain.
- At the time World War One broke out, Palestine was under the control of the Ottoman empire
who had joined the war on the side of Germany. Eager to enlist the support of the Arab
inhabitants as well as the Jewish settlers in the Middle East against Germany, the British had
made contradictory promises to these groups.
- On the one hand, the British sealed an alliance with the Arabs in the McMahon Letters
(correspondence between the Muslim leader Sherif Hussein and the British High Commissioner
in Egypt Henry McMahon) by which the British agreed that they would help the Arabs form a
united Arab state after the war from territory then under Ottoman rule.
- At the same time, the British also promised assistance in the formation of a ‘national’ home in
Palestine for the Jews by the Balfour Declaration of 1917.
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These conflicting promises came to a head as Zionism grew in strength in the nineteenth
century. At the end of WWI, Palestinian Arabs comprised 90% of the population in Palestine.
The belief propagated by Zionism - that the Jews were entitled to an independent homeland as well as the aftermath of anti-Semitism in Europe led to increased Jewish emigration to
Palestine – result – Jewish population increased from 56,000 in 1920 to 650,000 by 1948.
It is no wonder then that Arab and Jewish suspicions of British intentions intensified at this time.
The Arabs thought that the British were planning to establish a Jewish majority before they
relinquished control of Palestine. The Jews on the other hand believed that Britain was secretly
arming the Arabs and restricting Jewish immigration through land purchases.
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Eventually, Jewish-Arab fighting for control erupted and Britain, struggling with its own financial
difficulties after the war, announced in February 1947 that it would end its mandate and hand
over Palestine to the United Nations.
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However, the Arabs rejected a subsequent United Nations partition plan of 1947 that proposed
the formation of an Arab state and a Jewish state with Jerusalem administered as an
international zone. In May 1948, full-scale war broke out when the Jewish leader, David BenGurion, declared the establishment of the state of Israel. The war ended in early 1949 with the
Jewish forces controlling all of Palestine except the West Bank, the Gaza strip. This area
controlled by the Jewish forces became the new state of Israel.
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2. due to conflicting religious claims:
- The Arab-Israeli conflict is often regarded as a religious one. This is true in so far as both
Palestinians’ and Israelis’ claims over Palestine and in particular Jerusalem have religious
significance.
- The origins of such religious conflict begins with the early history of the region today called
Palestine. The Israeli claim their right based on the biblical grounds that the area has been
settled by the Hebrew people since the end of the 2nd millennium BC, when they were led out of
Egypt by Moses. Although the Jewish power reached a peak under King Solomon in the 10th
century before Christ, the Jewish people soon became subjugated by a number of foreign
rulers and were forced out by the Roman conquerors. They remained scattered around the
world for many hundreds of years. The early twentieth century movement, Zionism, based on
the belief that the Jews should establish a new state in their historic homeland of Palestine, led
to a massive movement of Jews back to Palestine.
- Their claim then is that Palestine is a God-given land – herein lies the centre of the conflict. The
Arabs claim is based on equally religious arguments. In the seventh century, the Arab followers
of the Prophet Mohammed successfully captured Palestine. After this Arab conquest,
Palestine became part of an enormous Islamic empire and the majority of the settlers were
Arab Muslims.
3. Arab and Israel nationalism
- The Arab-Israeli conflict can also be said to be an ideological conflict.
- Religiously, it is of course, a conflict between the Arab Muslims and the Israeli Jews but the
very basis of such religious fervor is, in a sense, nationalism expressed through the
confrontation of Arab nationalism in general and Palestinian nationalism in particular against
Zionism. (Berridge, p.66).
- Ironically, Palestinian nationalism itself can be traced to the Mandate of Palestine which they
believed had affirmed their right to a homeland. To the Palestinian Arabs then, the creation of
the state of Israel in 1948 had wrested its rightful place in Palestine, a claim they make on the
basis that they are the majority and had therefore been tricked out of their land by the Jews.
The fact that 800,000 Palestinians (i.e. over half of the country’s Arab population) fled their
homes and farms in the first Arab-Israeli war in 1948 certainly contributed to the beginnings of
Palestinian nationalism.
- At the same time, a wider Arab nationalism fuelled by the Arab countries’ belief in the injustice
done to Palestinian Arabs, was gaining strength. It was Colonel Gamal Nasser, head of a new
military government in Egypt, that harnessed Arab nationalism to a new level that eventually
culiminated in the Suez Crisis of 1956. The Six-Day War of 1967 however destroyed the Arab
nationalist aim of ‘liberating’ Palestine and also undermined Arab unity, with many disillusioned
Arabs turning to guerrilla movement such as the Fatah – an organization that functioned
outside of the PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organisation).
- The Israelis on the other hand were inspired by Zionism – a movement that propagated the
belief that the Jews were entitled to an independent nation in the world and more specifically a
nation based in their ancestral home in Palestine.
- It can then be argued that it was such an ideological division between the Arab Palestinians
and the Jewish Israelis that led to such an irreconcilable conflict that took them through 6 major
wars between 1948 and 1985.
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INVOLVEMENT OF THE SUPERPOWERS
I. Origins of Superpowers involvement:
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Up until World War Two (WWII), neither the USA or the Soviet Union had any interest in the
Middle East. However, the post-war political vacuum, created by the disintegration of the old
colonial structures (Britain and France) culminating in British announcement that they would
end their mandate over Palestine, provided opportunities for American and Soviet involvement.
Why was the Middle East of significance to them?
- access to oil
- overriding concern was to stop the spread of their adversary’s influence
Background to US involvement:
Iran:
both USA and USSR regarded each other’s interest in Iran as a strategy to establish a base
from which it would expand.
Keen to obtain a political foothold first before the Soviet Union, US reinstalled the Shah of Iran.
In return – Iran joined the Baghdad Pact – an anti-Soviet military alliance comprising Iran,
Britain, Turkey, Iraq and Pakistan.
Israel:
Although both superpowers supported the creation of Israel in 1948, Israel chose to remain
neutral until the Korean War broke out in 1950 when it showed full support for the US in its fight
against communism. Their new position materialized in the form of a treaty of friendship signed
with the US in October 1951.
Background to Soviet involvement:
Although there was little sympathy for communist ideas among the Arab nations, economic
considerations drove them to gain Soviet support, in particular, the provision of arms.
II How did the Arab-Israeli conflict become intertwined with Cold War interests?
1. Suez War of 1956
- The 1956 Suez War broke out when President Nasser of Egypt refused to renew a previous
agreement signed with Britain that allowed British troops to be stationed at the Suez. He
proceeded instead to nationalize the Suez Canal, blocked the Straits of Tiran, Israel’s only
outlet to the Red Sea.
- In the Suez crisis that developed, each Cold War adversary sought to increase their influence:
 The USSR:
- The Suez War provided the USSR with the opportunity to combat recent US advances in the
region (Treaty of Friendship, Baghdad Pact) by exploiting the rise of Arab nationalism, inspired
by Gamal Nasser himself. This was particularly significant as those Arab nations drawn to the
idea of Arab unity did not favour any alignment with the US since they wished for an
assertion of Arab control in a region they regarded as largely Arabic.
- To point to be made is that Nasser’s very aims – to make Egypt the centre of Arabic influence
and reduce Western imperial regional influence – were in tandem with Moscow’s Cold War
objectives. At the same time, a powerful factor pulling Nasser to the Soviet camp was his need
for arms which he knew he could not obtain from the US who were reluctant to increase supply
of advanced weaponry to an area they considered unstable and for countries for whom
allegiance was still suspect.
- This was the perfect opening the Soviet Union needed – they offered economic and military aid
to Egypt.
- The Soviet Union provided arms thorough Czechoslovakia when Nasser signed an arms deal
with Czechoslovakia in Sep 1955 by which Russian fighters, bombers and tanks and Russian
military experts went to train the Egyptian army.
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For the Soviet Union then, exploiting Egypt’s need to counter the growing military threat of
Israel provided the opportunity to increase her influence in the Middle East.
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The United States:
The US response was immediate – outraged because – meant West no longer controlled arms
supply to Egypt and Egypt became entangled in the Cold War rivalry of US and USSR – cancel
a grant of 46 million dollars - dam
It regarded any country that was not part of the Western alliance especially one that brought
arms from a Soviet-controlled state as a Communist ally – American suspicions – raised –
thought this was a Soviet strategy to expand into the Middle East.
Paradoxically, it was such US suspicions that led her to abstain from direct involvement in the
1956 war when Israel with British and French troops attacked Egypt, seizing the Sinai desert.
Instead, - afraid that such use of force would lead the Arabs to move closer towards the Soviet
Union – pressured Israel to withdraw. Hence, at the United Nations, for the first time, both the
USSR and the US demanded a ceasefire – but for different reasons.
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Significance:
How did the Suez War deepen Cold War involvement?
- Suez War – historical watershed. It exposed the inability of the former colonial powers –Britain
and France to control the Arab countries of the Middle East. Most significantly, their demise
meant that the US, the one power that had established a political foothold in the Middle East
after the war, now replaced Britain as the dominant power in the Middle East.
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In response to the Soviet influence in the Suez War, the US adopted the Eisenhower Doctrine
in 1957 – this gave the president the power to dispatch US troops to any Middle-Eastern nation
that ‘requested’ help in fighting communism.
In other word, the US was cementing their involvement since the Eisenhower Doctrine provided
long-term commitment to the regional crisis.
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This position of the US had a decisive impact on Egypt. Having already suffered a devastating
defeat by Israel made Egypt, she would now seek Soviet military aid even more given how the
Eisenhower Doctrine had removed any possibility of reliance on American aid. Therefore driven more into the Soviet camp. In the meantime – US replaced France as Israel’s main arms
supplier.
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In other words, the Suez War had the effect of polarizing the Arab-Israeli conflict along EastWest lines – the tighter the US-Israeli alliance became, the more the Arab states confronting
Israel sought Soviet support.
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2. The Six Day War of 1967
USSR
- The level of Soviet support for the Arab states increased significantly in the years after the
1956 war – particularly to Egypt. The Soviet Union supplied weaponry in return for access to
Egyptian ports and air space – Cairo airport.
- Encouraged Egypt and Syria and kept up a flow of anti-Israeli propaganda.
- Buoyed with Soviet assistance, the Arab nations made another plan to attack Israel.
- When Syria, Jordan and Lebanon amassed troops along the frontier, Israel launched a preemptive strike and the Arab had to accept a UN ceasefire.
US
- Part of the reason why Israel attacked was the knowledge that the US would not stop them.
Before they went to war, Israel wanted to make sure that she would not be stopped by the US
in the event that she attacked Egypt. This was because they did not want a repetition of what
had happened in 1956 when the US had pressured Israel to withdraw after they successfully
occupied the Sinai.
- This time, the foreign minister, Abba Eban, paid a visit to Washington to explain Israel’s
actions. The US made its position clear when Dean Rusk, the Secretary of State said “I don’t
think it’s our business to restrain anyone’ – such assurances that the US would do nothing in
the event of an Israeli attack - was what encouraged Israel to proceed with her plans.
- True enough – without any sort of moderating influence from the US – Israel scored a decisive
victory – captured the Gaza Strip, the whole of Sinai from Egypt, the West Bank from Jordan
and the Golan Heights from Syria as well as the rest of Jerusalem (eastern Jerusalem).
- The Arabs had no choice but to accept a UN ceasefire .
3. Yom Kippur War of 1973
- In October 1973, the new President of Egypt – Anwar Sadat launched an attack into Israelioccupied Sinai during a religious holiday in Israel known as Yom Kippur.
- This time however, while the Israelis’ counterattack was successful in defeating Syria and were
ready to take on Egypt, the US government put intense pressure on Israel who reluctantly
agreed to a cease-fire.
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Negotiations between Americans and Soviets led to a ceasefire on 23 October.
At this point – value of Soviet help questioned – Soviet advisers expelled and Egypt began to
move closer to the US.
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The Yom Kippur War (1973) marked the beginning of American involvement in the peace
process for the Middle East. For two years after the end of the war, relations between Egypt
and Israel was strongly influenced by the American secretary of state, Henry Kissinger. His
efforts at mediating in the conflict has been called ‘shuttle diplomacy’ so termed because he
flew tirelessly from capital to capital to negotiate and organize for the gradual separation of the
Israel and Arab armies.
It was with Kissinger’s help that Egypt finally concluded 2 limited agreements with Israel
- January 1974
- September 1975 – significant because it gave Egypt control of the oilfields of Sinai.
These agreements were followed by a programme of economic and military support for Egypt.
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Peace Efforts:
1. The Camp David Treaty, 1978-79
- Convinced that Israel could not be destroyed by military force, Egypt’s President Sadat decided
to agree to talks.
Sept – both Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel and President Sadat of Egypt agreed to
talks at the American presidential retreat at Camp David. (US President: Jimmy Carter)
Result – historic peace agreement:
- Israel would return Sinai to Egypt and close Israeli settlements in the Sinai.
- Sadat and Begin also agreed to give ‘autonomy’ – by which they meant limited local powers –
to the Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza.
- Finally on 26 March 1979, a treaty was signed formally ending the 31 years of war between
Egypt and Israel.
2. The Madrid Peace Conference, 1991
- After the Camp David peace settlement, the US continued its efforts in negotiating a lasting
peace settlement.
- President Bush told the Israelis to stop expanding Jewish settlements in the West Bank but the
Israeli government refused to follow the proposal.
- In this case, the US government discovered that its support of Israel with economic aid did not
always guarantee Israel cooperation. In the 1990s, the US government was giving at least $3
billion annually to the government of Israel (a quarter of the aid the US gave worldwide). In
return, the US had hoped the Israeli government would follow US advice but realize this was
not always the case.
3. The Oslo Accords, 1993
- The next phase in the Middle East peace settlement started with the election of a less
aggressive government in Israel in June 1992. Prime Minister Yitzak Rabin and Foreign
Minister Shimon Peres believed in reaching peace by giving concessions. The breakthrough
was made at a conference in Oslo and the eventual agreement was concluded in Washington
(led by US President Bill Clinton).
- Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Organisation recognized each other’s legitimacy for the
first time.
- The PLO promised to give up terrorism.
- The Palestinians were to be given limited self-rule in Jericho (on the West Bank) and part of
the Gaza Strip.
- Subsequent talks led to the withdrawal of Israeli troops from Gaza as well as other cities in the
West Bank. These territories were eventually turned over to the Palestinian Authority (PA)
between 1994 and 1997.
- For a time, it looked as if the peace process was gaining headway - the bilateral and
multilateral contacts between Arabs and Israelis increased.
- However, extremists on both sides began to counter-attack. Arab terrorists increased their
attacks against Israel and matters came to head with the assassination of Israeli prime
minister, Yitzak Rabin.
References:
Norman Lowe. (2005). Mastering Modern World History. Palgrave Macmillan:Hampshire.
Tony McAleavy. (1995). The Arab-Israeli Conflict. Cambridge University Press:Cambridge.
Paul Harper. (1989). The Arab-Israeli Conflict. Wayland: East Sussex.
Jeremy Kennard. The USA and the Middle East 1946-67. 20th century History. Vol. 6, No 1, Sep
2010.
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