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A Glossary of Literary Terms Review for Finals Grade 7 author’s purpose What the author hopes to accomplish in writing. It may be to 1) inform or teach you, 2) persuade you of some position, 3) reflect upon his/her experiences, or 4) entertain you. Ask yourself, “Why did the author write this? What was his goal?” genre a term used in literature and art, meaning a category or classification the three major genres are prose, poetry, and drama People sort or group things all the time. Foods can be grouped into sweet, salty, and bland-tasting categories. These categories are to food, what genres are to literature poetry writing that is highly concise, often musical, and emotionally charged. It can take many forms and employ many devices of sound and sense. It may may feature imagery, figurative language, and rhyme Robert Frost’s “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” is an example speaker . the imaginary voice a poet uses when writing a poem; the character who tells the poem. This character, or voice, often is not identified by name. There can be important differences between the poet himself and this voice. stanza a formal division of lines in a poem and is considered a unit; it is to poetry what a paragraph is to prose. narrative poem A poem that tells a story and features many of the conventions found in a prose narrative “The Cremation of Sam McGee” is an example drama a story written to be performed by actors. Though meant to be performed, a reader can also read the script (the written dialogue and stage directions) and imagine the action. It is divided into acts and scenes. dialogue A conversation between characters. In poems, novels, and short stories, dialogue is usually set off by quotation marks. In a play, it follows the names of the characters who will speak the lines, and colons, not quotation marks, are used. prose the kind of everyday writing that does not have the rhyme or rhythm patterns of poetry; writing in sentence and paragraph form nonfiction prose writing that presents and explains ideas or that tells about real people, places, objects, or events. Autobiographies, biographies, essays, reports, letters, memos, and newspaper articles are all examples of this genre. fiction prose writing that tells an imaginary story in the form of a short story or novel Fiction is the creation of an author’s mind. Many elements can come from real life (in Crash, the novel is set in Pennsylvania – real place that is not the creation of the author’s imagination), but the plot and the protagonist will be the work of the author’s mind. myth a fictional tale that explains the actions of gods or heroes or the origins of elements of nature. Part of the oral tradition, they are composed orally and then passed from generation to generation by word of mouth. Every ancient culture has its own. fantasy A genre of fiction that is highly imaginative, containing elements not found in real life In “Rikki-tikki-tavi,” the animals all talk and behave in ways humans do. The author uses personification to achieve this, but the idea of talking animals is pure fantasy science fiction Science fiction combines elements of fiction and fantasy with scientific fact. The author of science fiction poses a “what if” question and brainstorms ideas from there. The story may explore futuristic worlds and envision new technology Alien life forms may play a part Ray Bradbury’s “All Summer in a Day” is an example historical fiction Fiction written in a modern time but set during a period in history in which the author (usually) did not live Historical fiction must remain true to the facts of history, but much of the plot and most (if not all) of the characters will be the product of the author’s imagination Historical figures may be included, but again, what is factually known of them is not significantly altered Elizabeth George Speare’s The Witch of Blackbird Pond is an example realistic fiction fiction set in relatively modern times that reflect common experiences to which the average person could relate. This type of fiction tells an imaginary story about characters and places that could actually exist and events that could actually happen Jerry Spinelli’s Crash is an example “classics”/classic literature a term that loosely refers to writings which are revered within a culture as important examples of their literary heritage. “Classics” are generally older works reflective of literary periods, but some latter-day works earn the title “modern classic” if it is thought that book will endure in popularity and relevance beyond its own time novel a long work of fiction, usually divided into chapters. It is meant to be read over multiple sittings. In such a literary work, there is more opportunity for greater depth in terms of themes, plot lines, and characterization. Elizabeth George Speare’s The Witch of Blackbird Pond and Jerry Spinelli’s Crash are examples short story a brief work of fiction that is meant to be read in a single sitting. They usually follow a standard plot development format of exposition, conflict, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution Ray Bradbury’s “All Summer in a Day,” Walter Dean Myer’s “The Treasure of Lemon Brown,” and Rudyard Kipling’s “Rikki-tikkitavi” are examples The Elements of a PLOT LINE plot the series of related events in a literary work; the action that takes place in a story narrator The speaker or character who tells a story. In Crash, Crash Coogan is the narrator In “Rikki-tikki-tavi,” the narrator is not a character in the story, so the voice that tells the story cannot be specifically identified. Still, the reader can tell that this narrative voice is excited about the action; the narrator is clearly on Rikki’s side point of view the perspective from which a story is told. An author may choose to narrate from the first-person, meaning the story is told by a character in the story itself. A author may also employ a third-person point-ofview. Crash is written from the first-person point of view. Third-person limited implies the story is seen from the perspective of one or a limited number of characters. “All Summer in a Day” is written from a third-person limited point of view. Margot’s thoughts and feelings are made known to the reader, but the other character’s minds are closed to us Third-person omniscient implies that the narrator has a God-like view into the hearts and minds of all the characters “Rikki-tiki-tavi” is written from a third-person omniscient point of view. The thoughts and feelings of most of the characters are made known to the reader diction A level of speech, described in terms of “high,” “middle,” and “low;” it is adjusted according to audience and purpose of speech or writing. The diction of Crash is low. The characters use slang common to teenagers and the words Jerry Spinelli uses are common and easy to understand “The Treasure of Lemon Brown” could be described as having a level of middle diction . The sentence structures Walter Dean Myers uses are more varied and complex, and his word choices – while not difficult to understand – are more precise and vivid The diction of “Rikki-tikki-tavi” is high. Written nearly 100 years ago, the language is formal and the sentence structures complex. Even though the story was written for children, it is challenging to read because the level of diction is high – certainly higher than the everyday language of our modern world. exposition the beginnings of the story during which the author reveals the setting, introduces central characters, and sets in motion a story problem setting While we know that the story is set in Pennsylvania, the author never identifies the specific city where Crash lives. Why might an author chose to be vague about such a detail? Setting refers to the time and place when and where a story takes place. Sometimes the author will not be specific about where a story takes place so that the setting and the events that take place there would seem universal – that is, common and or possible for any person. historical context The customs, laws, modes, and expectations of the time period in which a literary work is set Not every story has a historical context, but certainly all works of historical fiction will. It is important that the reader understands the “Rikki-tikki-tavi” is set in India during the time of the British Raj. Some aspects of the story only make sense if the historical context is understood. characters a person, an animal, or a personified object that plays a role in the action of a literary work Characterization the techniques, both direct and indirect, an author uses to present and develop characters. direct characterization the author’s comments in a straightforward manner on the nature of the a character. The author tells the reader about and or actually describes the character indirect characterization the author allows the reader to draw conclusions about characters based upon the characters’ own words and acts, as well as upon how other characters react to them; the reader learns about the character by noting what other characters think and say How does the reader get to know the characters? characterization - the techniques an author uses to present and develop characters. In direct characterization, an author will comment in a straightforward manner on the nature of the a character. The author tells you about or describes the character DIRECTLY. There is no guesswork or interpretation; this is what the author wants to make certain you know. In indirect characterization, the author allows the reader to draw conclusions about characters based upon the characters’ own words and acts, as well as upon how other characters react to them. We learn about the character by noting what other characters think and say. There is some interpretation here on the part of the reader. round character A character for whom an author has created a fully developed physical appearance and personality. A multidimensional character whose feelings and attitudes are explored; such a character will likely experience change as the story progresses. In Crash, Crash, Penn, Jane, Abby, Mr. and Mrs. Coogan are round characters flat character A character that is not fully developed, but has a specific role to play in the plot is called a “flat character.” Penn’s parents are flat characters. protagonist the central character in a literary work. In some stories, this character may play the role of a hero/heroine antagonist the character or force that opposes the protagonist, or central character, in a work of literature In “Rikki-tiki-tavi,” the antagonists are the cobras, Nag and Nagina antihero A central character or protagonist, who lacks traditional heroic qualities and virtues (such as courage, integrity, compassion) An antihero may be comic, antisocial, mean, or even pathetic, while still maintaining the reader’s sympathy Crash Coogan is an antihero. Though he has countless negative traits, the reader comes to feel sorrow for the boy who fears losing the grandfather who loves him and gives him what Crash craves most – time and attention story problem(s) In the early chapters of a novel, the author begins to reveal the character of the protagonist, as well as problems that complicate matters in the protagonist’s world. These problems are often like the tip of an iceberg, the part that is above the surface for all to see. Such problems are a part of daily life to be solved, or at least managed. But like the larger part of the iceberg that is hidden below the surface, a character’s problem may have a deep and hidden source that is not easily or quickly solved. Under the surface of a problem may lie a conflict. conflict the struggle between opposing characters or forces that is central to the action of a literary work; man versus man, man versus nature, man versus society, man versus God, and man versus himself rising action the plot developments that add complications and expand the conflict; it contributes to the building of suspense or tension suspense Tension that is built when the reader feels anxious or uncertain as to what will be the outcome of events. climax the moment in the story that comes as its high point or its most emotional peak “Rikki-tiki-tavi” reaches the highest point of excitement when Rikki emerges from the rat hole, battered and bruised, but ultimately victorious. Nagina is dead! falling action the action which follows the story’s climax, tying up the loose ends and leading to the conclusion resolution the point at which the conflict in the story is resolved; the conclusion is reached theme the underlying idea or message about life or human nature contained in a literary work Loyalty, growing in confidence, protecting those we love or those who are entrusted to our care are themes explored in “Rikki-tikki-tavi” universal A term used to describe themes that are common in human experience The need to be loved, friendship, selfworth, courage when you are tested – these are examples of universal themes. EVERYONE can relate to these ideas symbolism The use of anything to represent something other than what it literally is; it can be an object, a person, an event – anything, really – but it will have deeper meaning beyond what is obvious. The red shoes Crash buys for Scooter symbolize a good luck charm of sorts, something that has power to protect Scooter from the Grim Reaper and lift the pall of death. Certainly Scooter would never wear high-heeled red shoes, so as Christmas gift, these shoes are pointless. They must mean more or represent something other than what they are. mood the emotional effect of feeling that an author creates in a literary work Authors create mood through word choices and the manner in which they describe any given scene in the story Mood in a story can change, just like your moods change. A story can feel dark and scary one moment, but light the next. foreshadowing when an author gives you a foretaste, hint, or preview of what is to come flashback when the narrator of the story or a character recalls a memory, action, or dialogue from an earlier time, out of sequence from the story’s present time line Chapters 1-8 of Crash are told in flashback irony when the opposite of what is expected happens; a contrast between appearances and what actually is; examples are verbal and situational spacing in literature, spacing occurs when there is a time change, major shift, or change in point-of-view, literally by creating a space in the text. Several lines may be skipped to create the effect. figurative language language based on figures of speech; symbolic in meaning. Examples include idiom, simile, metaphor, and personification. simile a comparison of two essentially unlike things using the words “like” or “as” to make the comparison. metaphor a direct comparison between two essentially unlike things. “Like” or “as” is not used in such a comparison. “Life is football.” Really? No, but to Crash, the rules of football apply to the way he lives his life, so the comparison works for him. personification when a non-human animal or thing is given human traits or capabilities ALLUSION Allusion is a literary device a writer may use to make reference to a well-known person, place, event, literary work, or work of art. When an author makes an allusion, he or she makes comparisons or analogies, and draws parallels between their works and another’s, or establishes relationships that will expand the reader’s understanding of concepts and ideas. When Crash observes that Penn Webb comes walking down the street “some Sneezy or Snoozy or whatever their names are,” an allusion is being made to the Seven Dwarfs. Crash is comparing Penn’s “strollllll-ing” to the way the dwarfs amble. The author chooses to use the Seven Dwarfs comparison because he is fairly certain his readers will have heard of the famous friends of Snow White and, as such, understand his point. synecdoche a reference to only a part of something that is important, but you really mean the whole OR the reference to the whole when you only mean a part A call for “All hands on desk!” is not just a call for “hands.” The ship’s captain wants whole sailors. idiom a figure of speech, an expression that has a particular meaning to a language or a region of the country. These expressions cannot be taken literally. They do not translate easily into other languages. oxymoron the juxtaposition of contradicting terms: jumbo shrimp, pretty ugly, Icy Hot, Battle of Little Bighorn euphemism A softer, gentler, less-offensive term for one considered harsh Think: passed away instead of dead hyperbole a gross exaggeration that cannot possibly be taken seriously alliteration the repetition of initial consonant sounds to draw the reader’s attention or create musical effects; “tonguetwisters” The four Washbournes whose first names are made known are Levi, Lee, Liz, and Lucy. ONOMATOPOEIA Onomatopoeia is the use of a word that imitates the sound it represents: sizzle, snap, buzz, boom. “There was the clank of boots on the board sidewalks, the creak and jingle of harness, the measured ringing of a blacksmith’s anvil, the snarling of strange dogs in the street....” dialect a regional variety of speech, a form of language spoken by people in a particular region of the county or by a group of people bound by some commonality, differing in pronunciation, grammar, word choice, and idiomatic speech. literature writing as art