Download Classical Empires

CLASSICAL CHINA: THE QIN & HAN DYNASTIES
The dynastic cycle is the cycle of dynasties that rise and fall in China. In China, a dynasty would
remain in power only as long as it was providing good government. A new dynasty would come
in and create peace and prosperity. When a dynasty went into decline, and began to abuse its
power, it was said to lose the Mandate of Heaven, or the favor of the gods. Disasters like
famine and invasions would soon follow. The ruling dynasty was seen as not able to rule and
lost The Mandate of Heaven (or right to rule). A strong leader would usually emerge to claim
the Mandate, and establish a new dynasty. The dynastic cycle would then begin again.
Under Shi Huangdi, the Qin Dynasty had unified China. Shi Huangdi established a strong
government by conquering the rival kings who ruled small states throughout China. To
maintain his empire, Shi Huangdi established a legalistic style of rule. This was a very harsh type
of rule, which forced people to obey totally or be executed.
Shi Huangdi set up a system of standardization: all weights, measurements, money, and writing
was the same across the entire empire. This made communication much, much easier. He also
ordered the construction of over 4,000 miles of road, improving transportation throughout the
empire. In addition, Shi Huangdi built many canals and ditches for farming and irrigation. Saved
thousands from dying of starvation. He added to, and improved the Great Wall of China,
making it a lot more effective defending the northern enemies. Shi Huangdi established the
framework of the country that still exists today.
Internal rebellions and unhappiness among peasants forced to work on the Great Wall led to the
weakening and collapse of the dynasty. Following the collapse of the Qin dynasty after Shi
Huangdi’s death, Liu Bang declared himself emperor of the Han Dynasty. He followed Shi
Huangdi’s policy of establishing centralized government, in which a central authority controls
the running of a state.
Under the Han Dynasty and its most famous emperor Han Wudi, society was highly structured.
Wudi built a more elaborate bureaucracy, added more canals and roads, and founded a
university. Confucianism returned to its central position in the Han government with the
education and examination of scholar-bureaucrats based on Confucian ideals. So, while he
relied on legalism to sustain his empire, he promoted Confucianism to obtain his bureaucratic
workforce.
However, running the elaborate bureaucracy and maintaining an imperial army were expensive.
Increased taxes, the growing gap between the rich and the poor, and unequal land distribution
spelled trouble in China. Serious tensions emerged, and peasants in hard-pressed regions
began to organize rebellions in hopes of gaining a larger share of Han society’s resources.
Internal weakness demonstrated by the infighting ultimately led to its division into regional
states.
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE
Achaemenid ruler Cyrus conquered a vast region between India and Egypt by 530
BCE, creating the Persian Empire. His skill as an administrator that is most notable.
Darius focused on three areas: organization of the empire's provinces, keeping the
provincial governors under control, and maintaining communications with his far
flung empire. The Persian Empire was large and extensive. The emperors needed to
make sure their authority was followed all throughout the empire. He created 23
large provinces, called satrapies. There were also officials known as the "King's Ears".
These personal agents of the king would travel to the various satraps' courts to check
up on their behavior and official records. The King's Ears commanded a great deal
of fear and respect, sometimes showing up with no armed escort, but still being able
to put down rebellious satraps before the revolts went beyond the planning stages.
Installing this type of bureaucracy and the emperor being consistent with keeping it
in check, allowed the Persian empire to expand and flourish.
The Persian Emperors practices cultural pluralism within their empire. Cultural
pluralism is a term used when smaller groups within a larger society maintain their
unique cultural identities, and their values and practices are accepted by the wider
culture provided they are consistent with the laws and values of the wider society. A
general policy of respect for the empire’s many non-Persian cultural traditions also
cemented the state’s authority.
The Persian Empire had an extensive road system known as the Royal Road, which
allowed the Persian Empire to flourish. Consisting of about 1700 miles, The Royal
Road enhanced communications and enabled Cyrus to receive news from all areas of
his vast domain. This allowed him to put down uprisings quickly, defend his borders,
and send his commands. Additionally, the Persians had adopted a practice of setting
up a system of relay riders, much like the old Pony Express in American history. Each
horse and rider would carry a message for a day and then pass it on to the next
horse and rider.
INDIA: THE MAURYA & GUPTA EMPIRES
Chandragupta Maurya was an ambitious adventurer who exploited the opportunity of
the decline of the Persians and laid the foundation for Mauryan Empire. This was the
first state to bring centralized and unified government to most of the India
subcontinent.
The Mauryan Empire created an elaborate bureaucratic system and made use of
Arthashastra: a manual for offering detailed instructions on the uses of power and the
principles of governments. This manual outlined methods of administering empire,
overseeing trade and agriculture, collecting taxes, maintaining order, conducting
foreign relations, and waging war.
The Maurya Empire hit its high point under Emperor Ashoka. Ashoka was a skilled
governor who maintained the large size of the empire through his Edicts of Ashoka: He
communicated his policies throughout his realm by inscribing edicts in natural stone
formations or on pillars. Ashoka also converted to Buddhism and encouraged its spread
throughout the empire.
However, running a large bureaucracy was expensive, and financial troubles hit the
empire. After Ashoka’s death, they were unable to hold the empire together and
internal rebellions led to the empire’s decline.
Following the Maurya Empire, Chandra Gupta unified India once again under the
Gupta dynasty. The Gupta was much smaller than Mauryan and less centralized. The
Guptas left local government and administration in the hands of the various regions of
their empires, much like the Persians. The stability of the Gupta Empire led to a
Golden Age in India that saw achievements in math and science, most notably, the
concept of zero.
The White Huns, invaders from northern Asia, contributed to the decline of the Gupta
Empire. External invasions weakened the government and the allowed the invaders to
establish their own kingdoms in the region.
CLASSICAL GREECE
Greece, due to its geography, never developed into a unified state. A
mountainous peninsula with many islands, each Greek city-state, or
polis, developed independently from each other. Lack of communication
and unique development prevented unity amongst the city-states.
Although they worshipped many of the same gods, participated in
similar festivals and holiday celebrations, each polis had a unique
culture. For example, Athens focused on education, valuing cultural
achievement and schooling, whereas Sparta predominantly prepared its
citizens for war, training soldiers and fighters from a young age.
Perhaps one of their biggest differences comes in terms of government.
Athens was the first democratic society, letting adult male citizens
participate in government. The agora, or marketplace, was a common
setting for citizens to contribute to decision making for the polis.
Sparta, on the other hand, practiced an oligarchy, where ruling power
is in the hands of a few.
However different they were, the city-states did unite in the Persian
wars to fend off the might Persian Empire. The Greek city-states came
out on top, defeating the Persians, and entering a period of peace and
prosperity amongst the city-states. The Greek city-state even came up
with an alliance, called the Delian League, to help prevent future wars.
Athens benefitted the most from this time of peace and prosperity,
entering a period known as the Golden Age under ruler Pericles. This
time saw advancements and cultural achievements in the realm of art,
architecture, literature and philosophy. The great Parthenon atop the
Athens acropolis was built during this time. However, jealously
amongst the city-states and disagreements over the financial funds of
the Delian League led to fighting amongst the Greeks – the
Peloponnesian Wars.
The Peloponnesian wars pitted Athens and Sparta against each other.
The Spartans defeated the Athenians but the wars brought poor
circumstances for Greece as a whole. The Peloponnesian Wars severely
weakened and divided Greece, making them vulnerable to invasion.
This laid the foundation for Macedonian conqueror Alexander the
Great to conquer Greece and create his massive empire in the
Mediterranean Region.
Alexander the Great conquered much of the known world, including
Persia, Egypt, Middle East, and Northern India. Alexander’s conquests
spread Hellenistic Culture, the blending of Greek culture, throughout
the civilized world. Alexandria, in Egypt, became the center of
Hellenistic culture and trade.
To maintain his large empire, Alexander utilized ingenious governing
strategies. He encouraged intermarriage amongst his soldiers and
conquered people, he let conquered people practice their own culture,
and spread Greek culture everywhere. This made his empire easier to
rule and made people happier under the Greek rule.
After Alexander’s death, no one person was strong enough to retain
control of the empire. Power was divided and large areas fell under
the control of different dynasties.
ROMAN EMPIRE
Rome went from the Roman Republic on the Italian peninsula to the Roman Empire
that extended its reach far into the lands surrounding the Mediterranean.
First, Rome consolidated its power in Italy, through military and political means. The
Romans secured control of the peninsula partly because they established military
colonies in regions they overcame and partly because of a generous policy toward the
peoples they conquered. Their policy toward conquered peoples across the peninsula
was to allow them to trade freely throughout the republic, to govern their own affairs
so long as they remained militarily loyal to Rome, to intermarry with Romans, and
sometimes to even gain Roman citizenship. These policies provided the political,
military, and diplomatic support Rome needed to put down occasional rebellions and
dominate affairs throughout the Italian peninsula.
Rome’s location gave it easy access to the riches of the lands ringing the
Mediterranean Sea. Roman merchants moved by land and sea. However, other large
and powerful cities interfered with Roman access to the Mediterranean. Rome became
engaged in a series with Carthage, known as the Punic Wars, to gain control of the
Mediterranean. Rome defeated the Carthaginians and went on to establish the Roman
Empire.
For the following 200 years, Rome then experiences a Golden Age, a period of peace
and stability that saw many advances and accomplishments particularly in engineering
and the arts. Romans borrowed Greek style and improved the arch and the dome.
Government and law flourished. Participation in government through the election of
representatives (republic) and the display of the 12 Tables helped maintain rule in the
empire. The construction of bridges, harbors, aqueducts, and especially roads, brought
the empire together.
Rome experienced both internal and external issues that contributed to its decline.
Heavy taxes were put on the citizens to support the government and officials became
corrupt. People stopped supporting the government. In addition, Germanic invaders
pushed through defense lines caused chaos in Rome. In an attempt to save the
empire, Emperor Diocletian split the empire in half, but eventually the Western
(Roman) side fell to Germanic invaders, marking the end of the Roman Empire.
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
The Byzantine Empire, the Eastern Half of the Roman Empire, thrived and succeeded
after the collapse of Rome. The Byzantine Empire existed for 1000 years as the
“economic and political powerhouse of the postclassical era.” It’s central city of
Bzyantium, later renamed Constantinople, dominated trade and cultural relations in
the eastern Mediterranean. The Empire and its capital city’s location is significant
because of its outstanding location & harbor that allowed it to control key trading
routes that linked Europe and Asia
Tightly centralized rule that concentrated power in the hands of a highly exalted
emperor (high and noble) allowed the empire to flourish. Caesaropapism (secular
rulers exercised direct control over the church) characterizes the early rule of
Constantine, the first Byzantine emperor. By heading his rule with an aura of
divinity, Constantine claimed divine favor. The idea of caesaropapism increased the
power of the emperor by giving him divine and other-worldly right to rule, and thus
legitimized their rule.
Perhaps the most famous Byzantine Emperor was Justinian. Justinian sought to
expand the empire and improve the city of Constantinople. He is best known for his
written code of laws, known as Justinian’s Code that created the basis for future
systems of law,
Together, Justinian and his wife Theodora, whom he allowed to work as his advisor,
worked at making Constantinople a strong but also a beautiful capital. He built high,
sturdy walls to protect the city from attack. He constructed a huge palace, public
baths, courts, schools, hospitals and more than twenty-five churches. The main street
of the city was lined with shops and open-air markets. People bought and sold goods
from Asia, Africa and Europe there.