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Chapter 10
Communication
Communication
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The process of exchanging information and
conveying meaning between a sender and
a receiver through a chosen medium
A unique tool that marketers use to persuade
consumers to act in a desired way (e.g., to
vote, to make a purchase or donation, to visit
a retail store)
Can take many forms: verbal, visual,
symbolic (e.g., unique logo)
Types of communication
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Mass communication
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uses the mass media (newspapers, television,
magazines, internet) to disseminate information
Personal communication
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involves two or more individuals interacting
directly with each other
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face-to-face
speaker to audience
over the phone
Advantages of mass communication
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Can reach a larger audience
Is less expensive per capita
Allows a marketer to do more with less
Advantages of personal communication
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Feedback is immediate
Is more flexible, allowing adaptation of the
message to a specific audience or situation
Information is generally considered more
credible
Stages of the communication process
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The source
The message
The medium
The receiver
Feedback
1. The source of the communication
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Decides to whom the message should be
sent (target audience)
Determines what meaning it should convey
Encodes message so that it is interpreted by
target audience as intended
Encoding is presenting an object or idea
through words or visual images
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Marketers have many methods to encode
their messages:
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words
pictures
music
symbols
spokespersons
Source credibility
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Perceived honesty and objectivity of the
source influences acceptance of the
message
Most important factor determining credibility
is the perceived intention of the source
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i.e., the consumer asks: “what does he or she
stand to gain if I do what is suggested”?
The greater the perception of gain by the
source, the more suspect the message
Credibility of formal and informal sources
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Friends, neighbors and relatives are
considered to have nothing to gain and thus
word-of-mouth has great influence on
receiver behavior
Formal sources generally have less credibility
Exceptions:
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Not-for-profit organizations
“Neutral” sources (e.g., Consumer Reports)
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Since consumers inherently suspect
commercial sources, they judge commercial
source credibility on other factors:
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Past performance
Kind and quality of service they are known to
provide
Quality and image of other products they make
Image and attractiveness of the spokesperson
Position in the community
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Explains why many companies spend money
on institutional advertising
Also explains why companies sponsor
entertainment, sports and community events
Credibility of spokespersons and
endorsers
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Consumers sometimes regard the
spokesperson as the source of the message
That person has a major influence on
message credibility
Thus marketers are more and more turning to
celebrities to give testimonials and
endorsements
More effective if what is said is within the
celebrity’s recognized competence
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Credibility of the retailer who sells the product
has a major influence on message credibility
Reputation of the medium carrying the
message also affects the credibility of the
message
Medium’s reputation for honesty and
objectivity affects believability of the
advertisement
2. The message
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Thought, idea, attitude, image, or other information
the sender wishes to convey
Critical that the sender encode the message in a
way the audience will understand
In order to do so, sender must know
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Exactly what it is trying to say
The personal characteristics of the target audience
Must then design a message strategy that will be
perceived and interpreted (decoded) accurately
Verbal vs. non-verbal stimuli
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Illustrations attract attention in a way that
words do not
Most effective ads combine visual and verbal
message in a complementary manner
Research on proportion of verbal to nonverbal messages is inconclusive
However, it is clear that visual stimuli
enhance recall of verbal messages
One-sided vs. two-sided messages
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One-sided messages tell only the good points
about a product
Two-sided messages also disclose negative
aspects of the product
Effectiveness depends upon
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Nature of the audience
Nature of the competition
One-sided messages
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Are more effective where the audience
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Is friendly (e.g., it uses the product)
Initially favors the communicator’s position; or
Is unlikely to hear an opposing argument
When competition does exist and is likely to
be vocal, one-sided messages lose credibility
Two-sided messages
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Are more effective where the audience
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Is critical or unfriendly (e.g., uses competitor’s
products)
Is well educated; or
Is likely to hear opposing claims
In general, are more credible because
acknowledge product has shortcomings
Also lower expectations for the product,
lessening likelihood of dissatisfaction
Comparative advertising
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Widely used marketing strategy in which a
marketer claims product superiority for its
brand over one or more explicitly or implicitly
identified competitors, either on an overall
basis or on selected product attributes
Research supports effectiveness, especially
when used by an “underdog” brand to
compete with a leading brand
Assists in recall of competitor’s name
May be perceived as less likable/believable
Sexual appeals
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Use of sex in ads has increased dramatically
in recent years, beyond traditional categories
of fragrance and fashion
While it does bring attention to the ad,
research indicates it rarely draws attention to
the product
When sex is relevant to the product, it can be
extremely powerful
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Men and women respond differently
Men respond more positively than women to
nudity (both in terms of the ad and the brand)
Romantic content is more attractive to
women
Men who view ads that stimulate a high level
of sexual arousal cannot remember
anything about the product
Fear appeals
A common and effective advertising
technique
Three different types of fear appeal
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1.
2.
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Physical risk (health and safety)
Psychological risk (social approval and security)
Financial risk (loss of income and savings)
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Mild fear appeals tend to be more effective
than strong ones
A number of explanations have been given
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Strong fear appeals create cognitive dissonance
Consumers seek to resolve the conflict by either
rejecting the message or giving up the behavior
If the behavior is comfortable/habit, consumers
more likely to ignore the message
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A recent study of adolescent responses to
fear communications found they are more
persuaded to avoid drug use by messages
that depict negative social consequences
rather than physical threats to their body
High sensation-seekers (personality variable)
are more likely to use substances and react
negatively to anti-substance messages
because of the feeling they are “immortal”
3. The medium
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Media strategy is an essential component of
any communication plan
Involves placement of ads in the specific
media read, viewed or heard by the target
markets
To accomplish this, marketers develop a
consumer profile of their target market that
includes the specific media they read or
watch
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In considering media selection, marketers
must consider the elements of
Reach--total number exposed to an ad in a
particular medium at any given time
Frequency--number of times an individual is
exposed to an ad
Impact--effectiveness of the medium in
delivering the message
Marketer’s goal is to maximize all three
Media effectiveness
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Numerous studies have compared
effectiveness of various media outlets
Findings have been inconclusive
Which media is better depends on the
product and nature of the message
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Print media permits lengthier verbal message
Newspapers allow timely announcements
Television allows for visual demonstration of what
a product can do
4. The receiver
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Receivers decode the messages they receive
based on their personal experience and
characteristics
Thus it’s critical that marketers understand
the experiences and characteristics of the
target market
5. Feedback—the receiver’s response
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The ultimate test of the success of the
marketing communication
Thus essential for sender to obtain feedback
promptly and accurately
Sender can then adjust message for future
campaigns
Interpersonal v. mass communication
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Interpersonal communication provides
immediate feedback
Feedback is equally important in mass
communication because of the cost
It is rarely direct; usually must be inferred
Sender infers how persuasive the message
was by the resulting action (or inaction)
They then act as quickly as possible to
correct any problems