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LABORATORY EXERCISE 1 SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND MEASUREMENTS Critical Thinking Application Answer Answers and data will vary. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results) 3. Answers will vary, however many students will conclude that the data will support the original hypothesis. PART B 1–6. Answers will vary. 1 LABORATORY EXERCISE 2 BODY ORGANIZATION AND TERMINOLOGY Instructional Suggestion If a dissectible torso (manikin) is not available, you might want to have students consult the figures in various sections of the textbook, particularly the body sections in the reference plates following chapter 1, to gain some understanding of the organizational pattern of the human body. Figure Labels FIG. 2.1 1. Thoracic cavity 4. Pelvic cavity 2. Abdominal cavity 5. Cranial cavity 3. Abdominopelvic cavity 6. Vertebral canal (spinal cavity) FIG. 2.2 1. Frontal sinuses 4. Oral cavity 2. Orbital cavities 5. Sphenoidal sinus 3. Nasal cavity 6. Middle ear cavity FIG. 2.3a 1. Visceral pleura 4. Visceral pericardium (epicardium) 2. Pleural cavity 5. Pericardial cavity 3. Parietal pleura 6. Parietal pericardium 9. Parietal peritoneum FIG. 2.3b 7. Visceral peritoneum 8. Peritoneal cavity FIG. 2.4a 1. Epigastric region 6. Left hypochondriac region 2. Right hypochondriac region 7. Left lumbar region 3. Right lumbar region 8. Left iliac region (left inguinal region) 4. Umbilical region 9. Hypogastric region 5. Right iliac region (right inguinal region) FIG. 2.4b 10. Right upper quadrant (RUQ) 12. Left upper quadrant (LUQ) 11. Right lower quadrant (RLQ) 13. Left lower quadrant (LLQ) 3. Transverse (horizontal) plane FIG. 2.5 1. Coronal (frontal) plane 2. Sagittal plane (midsagittal plane) FIG. 2.6a 1. Nasal 6. Mammary 11. Carpal 16. Tarsal 2. Oral 7. Brachial 12. Palmar 17. Cephalic 3. Cervical 8. Antecubital 13. Digital 18. Frontal 4. Acromial 9. Abdominal 14. Genital 19. Orbital 5. Axillary 10. Antebrachial 15. Crural 20. Buccal 2 21. Mental 23. Pectoral 25. Inguinal 27. Patellar 22. Sternal 24. Umbilical 26. Coxal 28. Pedal FIG. 2.6b 29. Otic 33. Brachial 37. Sacral 41. Popliteal 30. Occipital 34. Dorsum 38. Gluteal 42. 31. Acromial 35. Cubital 39. Perineal Crural (leg) or sural (calf) 32. Vertebral 36. Lumbar 40. Femoral 43. Plantar Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. a 5. b 9. e 13. g 2. g 6. d 10. h 14. g 3. a 7. a 11. f 4. a 8. f 12. c PART B 1. visceral pleura 5. serous fluid (pleural fluid) 2. visceral pericardium 6. visceral pericardium 3. parietal peritoneum 7. mediastinum 4. visceral peritoneum 8. diaphragm PART C 1. c 4. g 7. e 10. b 2. d 5. j 8. f 11. a 3. h 6. i 9. k PART D 1. c 4. b 7. k 10. d 2. a 5. l 8. h 11. e 3. g 6. j 9. i 12. f PART E 1. inferior 4. anterior 7. distal 10. (correct) 2. (correct) 5. (correct) 8. (correct) 11. contralateral 3. (correct) 6. (correct) 9. superficial 12. deep PART F (figure 2.7a and b) 1. Transverse (horizontal) plane 4. Cross section 2. Coronal (frontal) plane 5. Oblique section 3. Sagittal plane 6. Longitudinal section PART G 1. f 5. k 9. l 13. j 2. i 6. m 10. h 14. g 3. n 7. o 11. d 15. b 4. c 8. a 12. e 3 PART H 1. j 5. l 9. d 13. a 2. c 6. n 10. m 14. b 3. f 7. h 11. i 15. g 4. k 8. o 12. e Critical Thinking Application Answers PART I 1. LUQ 4. RUQ 2. RLQ 5. LUQ or LLQ 3. any or all quadrants 6. LUQ 4 LABORATORY EXERCISE 3 CARE AND USE OF THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE Instructional Suggestions 1. To stimulate student interest in use of the microscope, you may want to have students prepare wet mounts of pond water and observe the various forms of life present. A plankton net is a helpful device to concentrate pond organisms. Students can be encouraged to bring samples of pond water to class in preparation for this experiment. 2. You may want to provide students with prepared slides of major human organs to examine as a way of increasing their experience with using the microscope. 3. If oil-immersion objectives are available, you may want to provide students with prepared slides of various forms of bacteria to observe using these objectives. Critical Thinking Application Answer Answers will vary depending upon the order of the three colored threads. However, the colored thread on the top will be in focus first, the middle one second, and the bottom one last as the student continues to turn the fine adjustment the same direction. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. 100 2. 1,000 (sketch) 4. About 2.2 mm 2. About 4.5 mm for scanning power (using 4 objective) 5. About 2,200 micrometers 3. About 4,500 micrometers 5. Light intensity is decreased when high-power objective is used. PART B 1. PART C 1. (sketch) 2. About 1.7 mm (using a 10 objective) 3. The diameter of the scanning-power field of view is about 2.6 times greater than that of the lowpower field of view. 6. (sketch) 7. Upside down and reversed from right to left 8. Left Student is unable to see two adjacent mm lines on the scale in a high-power field of view. 9. Toward the observer 4. PART D 1. f 6. j 2. i 7. d 3. c 8. b 4. a 9. g 5. h 10. e PART E (sketches) 5 LABORATORY EXERCISE 4 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Instructional Suggestions 1. Instead of preparing cheek cell slides, you may want to have students prepare slides of plant cells using Elodea leaves or onion skin. 2. If live frogs are available, you may want to pith the frogs and have students prepare wet mounts using small samples of the ciliated epithelium that lines the oral cavity. They also can prepare smears of frog blood and stain the cells with methylene blue, and prepare wet mounts of sperm cells from the testes of the male frogs. You then might provide students with prepared slides of human ciliated epithelium, blood, and sperm cells and have the students compare the frog cells with the human cells. Figure Labels FIG. 4.1 1. Flagellum 9. Nucleus 2. Cell membrane 10. Nucleolus 3. Centrioles 11. Nuclear envelope 4. Golgi apparatus 12. Chromatin 5. Microtubule 13. Ribosomes 6. Rough endoplasmic reticulum 14. Mitochondrion 7. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum 15. Cilia 8. Lysosome FIG. 4.2 1. Carbohydrate 5. Cholesterol molecule 2. Fibrous protein 6. Globular protein 3. Phospholipid bilayer (double layer) 7. Phospholipid “tail” (fatty acid) 4. Glycolipid 8. Phospholipid “head” (phosphate group) Critical Thinking Application Answer The outer body surface is the same tissue as inside the cheek, however outer surface cells are dead from drying out. Light scraping of the inside of the cheek does not hurt or bleed as stratified squamous epithelial tissue is many cells thick. Epithelial cells lack nerve endings and blood vessels between the cells which makes the tissue ideal for coverings and protection. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. c 6. r 11. e 16. p 2. h 7. n 12. g 17. m 3. l 8. k 13. d 18. o 4. b 9. f 14. j 5. q 10. a 15. i 6 PART B 1. (sketch) 2. The wet-mount cells look like shells or “ghosts.” The stained cells made the nucleus and other cellular components more clearly visible. 3. Yes. The stained cheek cells are essentially the same size and shape; however, the process of cell removal may cause many of the cells to become folded and distorted. 3. Answers will vary. PART C 1. (sketches) 2. They should always notice cytoplasm, nucleus, nuclear envelope, and cell membrane. PART D (figure 4.4) 1. Ribosomes 7. Endoplasmic reticulum 2. Nuclear envelope 8. Nuclear envelope 3. Golgi apparatus 9. Nucleolus 4. Mitochondrion (cross section) 10. Chromatin 5. Chromatin 11. Centriole 6. Mitochondria 12. Cell membrane 2. Only nonliving cells can be observed, and only sections of a cell can be observed. PART E 1. Answers will vary. 7 LABORATORY EXERCISE 5 MOVEMENTS THROUGH CELL MEMBRANES Instructional Suggestion Instead of using human blood for Procedure C, you may want to substitute some other type of animal blood obtained from a meat packing house, a veterinarian, or a biological supplier. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results) 3. Answers will vary. 4. Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration as a result of molecular motion. Critical Thinking Application Answers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. yes yes no no yes PART B 1. Answers will vary. 2. Answers will vary. 3. A greater volume of fluid is in the thistle tube. 4. Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration through a selectively permeable membrane. Critical Thinking Application Answers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. yes yes no yes yes PART C 1. (sketches) 3. 2. Tube 3. There was a net movement of water out of the cells. Tube 1. There was a net movement of water into the cells. 4. Tube 2. There was no net movement of water into or out of the cells. 8 PART D 1. Water, glucose, and starch 2. The tests for glucose and starch were positive. 3. Gravity 4. Charcoal 5. Pores in the filter paper were too small. 6. Critical Thinking Application Answers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. no yes no no yes 9 Filtration is the movement of substances through a membrane as a result of hydrostatic pressure that is greater on one side of the membrane than on the other side. LABORATORY EXERCISE 6 THE CELL CYCLE Figure Labels FIG. 6.1 1. Prophase 3. Anaphase 2. Metaphase 4. Telophase and cytokinesis FIG. 6.2 1. Chromosome (chromatid) 3. Centriole 2. Centromere 4. Spindle fiber (microtubules) Critical Thinking Application Answer Interphase. Even in rapidly dividing cells interphase is the most prevalent because it requires the longest period of time for growth and duplication of cell structures. Laboratory Report Answers PART A Table: Stage Major Events Occurring Interphase Growth, duplication of cell structures, and normal metabolism take place. Prophase Nuclear envelope disappears; chromatin fibers condense, forming chromosomes (paired chromatids); centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell. Metaphase Chromosomes align midway between centrioles. Anaphase Microtubules pull chromosomes toward centrioles. Telophase Chromosomes elongate and become chromatin fibers; nuclear envelopes reappear. Cytoplasmic division Cell membrane constricts, dividing cell into new cells (daughter cells). PART B (sketches) PART C 1. Each new cell contains identical chromosomes. 2. They may be slightly different in size and numbers of organelles. 3. Mitosis involves the division of the nuclear contents and the distribution of identical sets of chromosomes to the new cells; cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) involves the division of the cytoplasm and cytoplasmic organelles. PART D (figure 6.5a–d) a. Metaphase c. Prophase b. Telophase d. Anaphase PART E (figure 6.5a–d) 1. Chromosome (chromatid) 4. Nuclear envelope 2. Cytokinesis (cleavage furrow) 5. Centrioles/centrosome 3. Cell membrane 6. Spindle fibers (microtubules) 10 LABORATORY EXERCISE 7 EPITHELIAL TISSUES Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. f 4. d 7. e 10. a 2. d 5. c 8. f 11. a 3. c 6. d 9. b 12. e PART B (sketches) Critical Thinking Application Answer Stratified squamous epithelium would have excellent protection as it is several cells thick. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium with cilia would provide good movement of mucus and trapped particles away from the lungs. 11 LABORATORY EXERCISE 8 CONNECTIVE TISSUES Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. e 5. i 9. g 13. f 2. a 6. d 10. h 14. j 3. b 7. a 11. a 4. c 8. h 12. c PART B (sketches) Critical Thinking Application Answer The spleen is composed of reticular connective tissue. This type of tissue contains only short, thin, collagenous fibers (reticular fibers) that are widely scattered. The result is a delicate distribution of fibers among cells and a fluid ground substance. (Spleen repair is almost impossible due to the short reticular fibers. A ruptured spleen is usually removed in surgery.) 12 LABORATORY EXERCISE 9 MUSCLE AND NERVOUS TISSUES Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. b 4. a 7. c 2. a 5. c 8. a 3. d 6. b 9. d PART B (sketches) 13 10. b LABORATORY EXERCISE 10 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Figure Labels FIG. 10.1 1. Epidermis 5. Sweat gland pore 2. Dermis 6. Sweat gland duct 3. Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis) 7. Sebaceous gland 4. Hair shaft 8. Arrector pili muscle FIG. 10.2 1. Stratum corneum 4. Stratum spinosum 2. Stratum lucidum 5. Stratum basale 3. Stratum granulosum 6. Basement membrane FIG. 10.3 1. Arrector pili muscle 5. Hair follicle 2. Region of cell division 6. Sweat gland (eccrine gland) 3. Hair root (keratinized cells) 7. Hair papilla 4. Sebaceous gland 8. Dermal blood vessels Critical Thinking Application Answer Melanin granules are concentrated within some of the most superficial living cells of the body. Because melanin absorbs the ultraviolet radiation of sunlight, minimal damaging wavelengths reach the living cells of the dermis. (Most of the melanin granules are oriented on the superficial side of the nucleus that serve as a protective shield of the nucleus of the epidermal cells.) Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. k 5. c 9. j 13. f 2. m 6. d 10. g 14. b 3. a 7. i 11. n 4. h 8. e 12. l PART B 1. Answers will vary. 2. Answers will vary. 3. Epidermal cells at the base of the hair follicle divide and grow, pushing older cells outward; as these cells die, they become the keratinized parts of the hair. 4. The pigment melanin is produced by melanocytes. PART C 1. Epidermis is the outer layer of the skin, whereas dermis is the inner layer; the subcutaneous layer binds the dermis to the underlying organs. 2. Cells of the stratum basale are living and reproduce actively; cells of the stratum corneum are dead and keratinized and form the surface layer of the skin. 14 3. Melanin is found in the stratum basale. 4. It contains both elastic and collagenous fibers that give the dermis the qualities of elasticity and strength. PART D 1. Hair root 2. Dermis PART E (sketch) 15 3. Sebaceous glands are usually connected to hair follicles and secrete sebum into the follicles. 4. Dermis LABORATORY EXERCISE 11 STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF BONE Figure Labels FIG. 11.1 1. Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) 6. Periosteum 2. Spongy bone (red marrow) 7. Proximal epiphysis 3. Compact bone 8. Diaphysis 4. Medullary cavity 9. Distal epiphysis 5. Yellow marrow FIG. 11.2 1. Spongy bone 6. Perforating canal 2. Compact bone 7. Blood vessels 3. Osteon 8. Nerve 4. Periosteum 9. Canaliculus 5. Osteonic canal 10. Osteocyte Critical Thinking Application Answer The closest blood supply to an osteocyte is located in the osteonic canal of an osteon unit. Nutrients and wastes can move from one cell to another via small cellular processes located in minute tubes in the matrix called canaliculi. In this way, all of the osteocytes of one osteon are tied together to a blood source. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. flat 2. short 3. long 4. irregular 5. round or sesamoid 6. flat 7. Epiphysis refers to the expanded end of a long bone; diaphysis refers to the shaft between the ends of such a bone. 8. Hyaline cartilage covers the articular ends of a long bone. 9. Dense connective tissue comprises the periosteum that encloses the bone except for its articular ends. 10. Periosteum forms the outer covering of a bone, whereas endosteum lines its hollow, internal chambers. PART B 1. Compact bone has osteons closely packed together, and spongy bone has large spaces between thin bony plates called trabeculae. 2. Compact bone provides strength in the shaft and along the borders of the bone. Spongy bone reduces the weight of the bone and provides spaces occupied by red marrow. 3. The marrow in the medullary cavity of an adult is yellow, but marrow in the spaces of spongy bone is red. PART C (figure 11.3a and b) 1. Epiphysis (distal) 4. Medullary cavity (occupied by yellow marrow) 2. Diaphysis 5. Compact bone 3. Epiphysis (proximal) 6. Spongy bone (occupied by red marrow) 16 LABORATORY EXERCISE 12 ORGANIZATION OF THE SKELETON Figure Labels FIG. 12.1a 1. 2. Cranial bones (cranium) 5. Sternum 9. Carpals 14. Metatarsal 6. Rib 10. Metacarpal 15. Phalanx Facial bones (face) 7. Vertebral column (vertebra) 11. Phalanx 12. Patella 13. Tarsals 3. Skull 4. Clavicle 8. Coxal bone FIG. 12.1b 16. Scapula 19. Radius 22. Fibula 24. Sacrum 17. Humerus 20. Femur 23. 25. Coccyx 18. Ulna 21. Tibia Vertebral column (vertebra) Critical Thinking Application Answer The largest foramen in the skull is the foramen magnum in the occipital bone. The largest foramen in the human body is the obturator foramen in the coxal bone. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. sutural bones (wormian bones) 9. ulna 2. reduce friction where tendons pass over bony prominences 10. carpals 11. sacrum 3. skull 12. pelvis 4. hyoid 13. patella 5. coccyx 14. tarsals 6. sternum 15. phalanges 7. twelve 8. pectoral girdle PART B 1. c 3. a 5. g 2. f 4. e 6. b PART C 1. c 5. b 2. a 6. d 3. g 7. f 4. e 17 7. d LABORATORY EXERCISE 13 THE SKULL Instructional Suggestion You might want to have the students use colored pencils to color the bones in figures 13.1 through 13.5. They should use a different color for each of the individual bones in the series. This activity should cause the students to observe the figures more carefully and help them to locate the various bones that are shown from different views in the figures. The students can check their work by referring to the corresponding full-color figures in the textbook. Figure Labels FIG. 13.1 1. Parietal bone 9. Supraorbital foramen 2. Frontal bone 10. Nasal bone 3. Coronal suture 11. Sphenoid bone 4. Temporal bone 12. Zygomatic bone 5. Perpendicular plate (of ethmoid bone) 13. Middle nasal concha (of ethmoid bone) 6. Infraorbital foramen 14. Inferior nasal concha 7. Vomer bone 15. Maxillary bone 8. Mandible 16. Mental foramen FIG. 13.2 1. Parietal bone 12. Coronal suture 2. Squamosal suture 13. Frontal bone 3. Lambdoidal suture 14. Sphenoid bone 4. Temporal bone 15. Lacrimal bone 5. Occipital bone 16. Nasal bone 6. Temporal process (of zygomatic bone) 17. Zygomatic bone 7. External auditory meatus 18. Maxillary bone 8. Mastoid process 19. Mental foramen 9. Styloid process 20. Mandible 10. Mandibular condyle 21. Coronoid process 11. Zygomatic process (of temporal bone) FIG. 13.3 1. Maxillary bone 8. Occipital condyle 2. Zygomatic bone 9. Temporal bone 3. Sphenoid bone 10. Palatine process (of maxillary bone) 4. Vomer bone 11. Palatine bone 5. Zygomatic arch 12. Foramen magnum 6. Styloid process 13. Lambdoidal suture 7. Mastoid process 14. Occipital bone 18 FIG. 13.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ethmoid bone Foramen magnum Crista galli Cribriform plate (olfactory foramina) Frontal bone 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Sphenoid bone Temporal bone Sella turcica Parietal bone Occipital bone 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Parietal bone Squamosal suture Lambdoidal suture Occipital bone Sella turcica Styloid process Sphenoidal sinus Vomer bone FIG. 13.5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Coronal suture Frontal bone Frontal sinus Crista galli Nasal bone Perpendicular plate (of ethmoid bone) Maxillary bone Mandible Temporal bone Critical Thinking Application Answer The cribiform plate of the ethmoid bone with numerous olfactory foramina is a weak location of the cranium. Excessive pressure on the cribiform plate could result in a skull fracture. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. 2. 3. d a a 4. 5. 6. f c f 7. 8. 9. f a c 10. 11. 12. 4. 5. 6. squamosal frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid maxillary bone e f b PART B 1. 2. 3. coronal sagittal lambdoidal PART C 1. 2. 3. e c c 4. 5. 6. h d g 7. 8. 9. h a d 10. 11. 12. c f b 3. 4. g f 5. 6. d b 7. e 6. 7. 8. 9. Mandible Middle nasal concha (of ethmoid bone) Inferior nasal concha Mental foramen PART D 1. 2. c a PART E (figures 13.7–13.11) FIG. 13.7 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Frontal Nasal Zygomatic Infraorbital foramen Maxilla 19 FIG. 13.8 1. Parietal 8. Mandibular condyle 2. Squamosal suture 9. Coronal suture 3. Temporal 10. Frontal 4. Lambdoidal suture 11. Zygomatic process (of temporal bone) 5. Occipital 12. Zygomatic 6. External auditory meatus 13. Maxilla 7. Mastoid process 14. Mandible FIG. 13.9 1. Maxilla 7. Palatine process of maxilla 2. Zygomatic bone 8. Palatine bone 3. Sphenoid bone 9. Vomer bone 4. Temporal bone 10. Occipital condyle 5. Occipital bone 11. Foramen magnum 6. Incisive foramen FIG. 13.10 1. Frontal bone 5. Ethmoid bone 2. Temporal bone 6. Sphenoid bone 3. Parietal bone 7. Sella turcica 4. Occipital bone 8. Foramen magnum FIG. 13.11 1. Parietal bone 5. Maxilla 2. Sphenoid bone 6. Frontal bone 3. Temporal bone 7. Mandible 4. Zygomatic bone 20 LABORATORY EXERCISE 14 VERTEBRAL COLUMN AND THORACIC CAGE Figure Labels FIG. 14.1 1. Cervical vertebrae 5. Intervertebral foramina 2. Thoracic vertebrae 6. Sacrum 3. Lumbar vertebrae 7. Coccyx 4. Intervertebral disks FIG. 14.2 1. Fovea dentis (facet for dens) 6. Superior articular facet 2. Facet that articulates with occipital condyle 7. Transverse foramen 3. Transverse foramen 8. Body 4. Transverse process 9. Spinous process 5. Dens (odontoid process) FIG. 14.3 1. Lamina 11. Spinous process 2. Body 12. Transverse process 3. Lamina 13. Facet for rib tubercle 4. Pedicle 14. Superior articular facet 5. Body 15. Facet for rib head 6. Lamina 16. Vertebral foramen 7. Superior articular facet 17. Transverse process 8. Spinous process (bifid) 18. Pedicle 9. Transverse foramen 19. Body 10. Transverse process FIG. 14.4 1. Sacral promontory 5. Tubercle of medial sacral crest 2. Pelvic (ventral) sacral foramen 6. Dorsal sacral foramen 3. Superior articular process 7. Sacral hiatus 4. Sacral canal Critical Thinking Application Answer The four curvatures allow more resiliency and flexibility, which will enable the vertebral column to function more like a spring instead of a rigid rod. FIG. 14.5 1. Sternal notch 7. Clavicular notch 2. Sternal angle 8. Manubrium 3. True ribs 9. Body 4. False ribs 10. Xiphoid process 5. Floating ribs 11. Sternum 6. Thoracic vertebrae 12. Costal cartilage 21 FIG. 14.6 1. Neck 5. Anterior (sternal) end 2. Head 6. Tubercle 3. Tubercle 7. Anterior (sternal) end 4. Shaft Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. spinal cord 10. atlas 2. 33 11. axis 3. 26 12. dens 4. primary 13. lumbar 5. bodies 14. five 6. intervertebral disks 15. sacroiliac 7. vertebral arch 16. sacral promontory 8. spinal nerves 17. sacral hiatus 9. vertebral arteries PART B Vertebra Number Size Body Spinous Process Transverse Foramina Cervical 7 Smallest Smallest C2 through C5 are forked Present Thoracic 12 Intermediate Intermediate Pointed and angle downward Absent Lumbar 5 Largest Largest Short, blunt, and nearly horizontal Absent PART C 1. 206 5. clavicles 2. floating 6. a. supports shoulder girdle and upper limbs 3. transverse b. protects visceral organs 4. hyaline cartilage c. functions in breathing PART D (figure 14.7) 1. Spinous process 4. Transverse process 2. Atlas 5. Intervertebral disk 3. Axis 6. Body of sixth cervical vertebra 22 LABORATORY EXERCISE 15 PECTORAL GIRDLE AND UPPER LIMB Figure Labels FIG. 15.1 1. Acromion process 7. Costal cartilage 2. Head of humerus 8. Scapula 3. Coracoid process 9. Humerus 4. Clavicle 10. Ulna 5. Rib 11. Radius 6. Sternum FIG. 15.2 1. Acromion process 7. Medial (vertebral) border 2. Coracoid process 8. Glenoid cavity 3. Superior border 9. Lateral (axillary) border 4. Supraspinous fossa 10. Coracoid process 5. Spine 11. Glenoid cavity 6. Infraspinous fossa 12. Acromion process Critical Thinking Application Answer The clavicles brace the freely movable scapulae, helping to hold the shoulders in place. If an excessive lengthwise force occurs on this structurally weak bone, as when a person breaks a fall with an outstretched rigid upper limb, it is likely to fracture. FIG. 15.3 1. Head 9. Lesser tubercle 2. Greater tubercle 10. Intertubercular groove 3. Anatomical neck 11. Deltoid tuberosity 4. Surgical neck 12. Coronoid fossa 5. Olecranon fossa 13. Capitulum 6. Lateral epicondyle 14. Trochlea 7. Capitulum 15. Medial epicondyle 8. Greater tubercle 16. Trochlea FIG. 15.4 1. Trochlear notch 5. Styloid process 2. Coronoid process 6. Olecranon process 3. Head of radius 7. Head of ulna 4. Radial tuberosity 8. Styloid process FIG. 15.5 1. Olecranon process 4. Head of radius 2. Humerus 5. Radius 3. Olecranon fossa 6. Ulna 23 FIG. 15.6 1. Distal phalanx 8. Hamate 2. Middle phalanx 9. Phalanges 3. Proximal phalanx 10. Trapezium 4. Metacarpals 11. Trapezoid 5. Carpals 12. Scaphoid 6. Pisiform 13. Capitate 7. Triquetrum 14. Lunate Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. scapulae 5. spine 2. manubrium (clavicular notch) 6 acromion process 3. acromion processes 7. coracoid process 4. clavicle 8. head PART B 1. a 5. d 9. f 13. b 2. b 6. b 10. e 14. f 3. b 7. a 11. a 15. e 4. c 8. b 12. a PART C (figures 15.7, 15.8, and 15.9) 1. Ulna 9. Clavicle 2. Humerus 10. Scapula 3. Olecranon process 11. Rib 4. Head of radius 12. Phalanges 5. Radius 13. Metacarpals 6. Acromion process 14. Carpals 7. Head of humerus 15. Distal phalanx 8. Humerus 16. Proximal phalanx 24 LABORATORY EXERCISE 16 PELVIC GIRDLE AND LOWER LIMB Figure Labels FIG. 16.1 1. Coxal bone 2. Sacrum 3. Coccyx FIG. 16.2a 1. Ilium 7. Ischial tuberosity 2. Posterior superior iliac spine 8. Iliac crest 3. Greater sciatic notch 9. Anterior superior iliac spine 4. Ischial spine 10. Acetabulum 5. Lesser sciatic notch 11. Pubis 6. Ischium 12. Obturator foramen FIG. 16.2b 13. Anterior superior iliac spine 18. Posterior superior iliac spine 14. Ilium 19. Greater sciatic notch 15. Pubis 20. Ischial spine 16. Iliac crest 21. Lesser sciatic notch 17. Iliac fossa 22. Ischium Critical Thinking Application Answer All the features examined are wider in the female pelvis which will result in a larger pelvic cavity and must also serve as a birth canal for a vaginal delivery. FIG. 16.3 1. Fovea capitis 8. Head 2. Neck 9. Neck 3. Lesser trochanter 10. Lesser trochanter 4. Medial epicondyle 11. Linea aspera 5. Lateral epicondyle 12. Lateral condyle 6. Patellar surface 13. Medial condyle 7. Greater trochanter FIG. 16.4 1. Medial condyle 6. Lateral condyle 2. Tibial tuberosity 7. Head of fibula 3. Anterior crest 8. Fibula 4. Tibia 9. Lateral malleolus 5. Medial malleolus 25 FIG. 16.5 1. Medial condyle 4. Fibula 2. Femur 5. Tibia 3. Lateral condyle FIG. 16.6a 1. Fibula 4. Calcaneus 2. Tibia 5. Navicular 3. Talus 6. Medial cuneiform FIG. 16.6b 1. Tarsals 8. Lateral cuneiform 2. Metatarsals 9. Intermediate cuneiform 3. Phalanges 10. Medial cuneiform 4. Calcaneus 11. Proximal phalanx 5. Talus 12. Middle phalanx 6. Navicular 13. Distal phalanx 7. Cuboid Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. coxal bones 4. ischial spines 6. iliac crest 2. acetabulum 5. 7. tuberosity 3. ilium symphysis pubis 9. obturator foramen 8. pubic arch 10. sacroiliac PART B 1. e 4. a 7. g 10. b 2. a 5. f 8. f 11. d 3. g 6. f 9. a 12. c PART C (figures 16.7, 16.8, and 16.9) 1. Obturator foramen 10. Lateral condyle 2. Symphysis pubis 11. Head of fibula 3. Ilium 12. Fibula 4. Sacrum 13. Tibia 5. Head of femur 14. Talus 6. Pubis 15. Calcaneus 7. Femur 16. Metatarsal 8. Tibia 17. Proximal phalanx 9. Lateral epicondyle 18. Distal phalanx 26 LABORATORY EXERCISE 17 THE JOINTS Critical Thinking Application Answer Maximum flexion of body parts can occur when in fetal position or performing a cannon ball into a swimming pool. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. b 4. e 2. c 5. a 3. d PART B (figure 17.6) 1. Suture 6. Hinge 2. Symphysis 7. Pivot 3. Symphysis 8. Condyloid 4. Pivot 9. Saddle 5. Gliding 10. Ball-and-socket PART C 1. a 6. a 2. b 7. d (b and c also present) 3. e 8. f 4. d 9. c 5. d 10. c PART D (figure 17.7) 1. Rotation 14. Flexion 2. Elevation 15. Extension 3. Supination 16. Flexion 4. Pronation 17. Flexion 5. Abduction 18. Extension 6. Adduction 19. Flexion 7. Flexion 20. Extension 8. Extension 21. Flexion 9. Abduction 22. Extension 10. Adduction 23. Flexion 11. Protraction 24. Extension 12. Retraction 25. Dorsiflexion 13. Extension 26. Plantar flexion 27 PART E Table: Type of Joint Bones Included Types of Movement Possible Ball-and-socket Humerus, scapula Movements in all planes and rotation Hinge and gliding Humerus, radius, ulna Flexion and extension between humerus and ulna; twisting movements occur between humerus and radius Ball-and-socket Femur, coxal bone Movements in all planes and rotation Hinge (modified), condyloid, and gliding Femur, tibia Flexion and extension between femur and tibia and slight rotation when flexed; sliding movements occur between femur and patella 28 LABORATORY 18 SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE Figure Labels FIG. 18.2 1. Epimysium 7. Tendon 2. Perimysium 8. Fascia 3. Endomysium 9. Fascicle 4. Muscle fibers (cells) 10. Nucleus 5. Sarcolemma (cell membrane) 11. Sarcoplasmic reticulum 6. Myofibrils 12. Filaments FIG. 18.3 1. Sarcoplasmic reticulum 6. Sarcoplasm 2. Transverse tubule 7. Sarcolemma 3. Openings to transverse tubules 8. Myofibrils 4. Mitochondria 9. Cisternae of sarcoplasmic reticulum 5. Myofilaments 10. Nucleus FIG. 18.4 1. Coracoid process 4. Radius 2. Origins of biceps brachii (tendons) 5. Insertion of biceps brachii (tendon) 3. Biceps brachii 6. Ulna Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. n 5. b 9. j 13. g 2. k 6. a 10. c 14. f 3. e 7. i 11. l 4. h 8. d 12. m 7. prime movers PART B (figure 18.5) 1. Z line 4. M line 2. I band (light) 5. A band (dark) 3. H zone 6. Sarcomere PART C 1. origin 3. two heads 5. prime mover 2. insertion 4. biceps brachii 6. synergists 29 LABORATORY EXERCISE 19 SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. h 6. f 2. a 7. g 3. c 8. d 4. i 9. e 5. b PART B 1. Answers will vary. 2. Answers will vary. Critical Thinking Application Answer Probably not; differences in electrolyte concentrations and various other factors would probably result in slightly different values. PART C 1. (attached myogram) 2. (labels for myogram) 3. Answers will vary. PART D 1. (attached myogram) 4. Answers will vary. 2. (labels for myogram) 5. Answers will vary. 3. Answers will vary. 6. Answers will vary. 30 LABORATORY EXERCISE 20 MUSCLES OF THE FACE, HEAD, AND NECK Figure Labels FIG. 20.1 1. Frontalis of epicranius 6. Orbicularis oculi 2. Occipitalis of epicranius 7. Zygomaticus 3. Masseter 8. Buccinator 4. Sternocleidomastoid 9. Orbicularis oris 5. Temporalis 10. Platysma 2. Medial pterygoid 2. Splenius capitis FIG. 20.2 1. Lateral pterygoid FIG. 20.3 1. Longissimus capitis (erector spinae) Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. zygomaticus 7. lateral 2. buccinator 8. orbicularis oculi 3. orbicularis oris 9. sternocleidomastoid 4. lateral pterygoid 10. splenius capitis 5. raise the jaw/elevate mandible (as in biting) 11. platysma 6. medial 12. zygomaticus PART B 1. epicranius 6. buccinator 2. zygomaticus 7. platysma 3. masseter 8. temporalis 4. lateral pterygoid 9. splenius capitis 5. sternocleidomastoid 10. semispinalis capitis Critical Thinking Application Answers PART C (figure 20.4) 1. Epicranius (frontalis) 4. Orbicularis oris 2. Zygomaticus 5. Platysma 3. Orbicularis oculi 31 LABORATORY EXERCISE 21 MUSCLES OF THE CHEST, SHOULDER, AND UPPER LIMB Figure Labels FIG. 21.1 1. Trapezius 6. Infraspinatus 2. Deltoid 7. Teres minor 3. Latissimus dorsi 8. Teres major 4. Levator scapulae 9. Rhomboideus major 5. Supraspinatus FIG. 21.2 1. Pectoralis minor 4. Trapezius 2. Internal intercostal 5. Deltoid 3. Serratus anterior 6. Pectoralis major FIG. 21.3a 1. Levator scapulae 5. Teres minor 2. Supraspinatus 6. Teres major 3. Deltoid 7. Triceps brachii 4. Infraspinatus FIG. 21.3b 1. Deltoid 4. Coracobrachialis 2. Biceps brachii 5. Brachialis 3. Subscapularis FIG. 21.4a 1. Biceps brachii 7. Flexor carpi radialis 2. Brachialis 8. Palmaris longus 3. Supinator 9. Flexor carpi ulnaris 4. Pronator teres 10. Pronator quadratus 5. Brachioradialis 11. Flexor digitorum superficialis 6. Extensor carpi radialis longus FIG. 21.4b 1. Triceps brachii 5. Extensor carpi radialis longus 2. Flexor carpi ulnaris 6. Extensor carpi radialis brevis 3. Extensor carpi ulnaris 7. Extensor digitorum 4. Brachioradialis Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. c 5. j 9. a 13. d 2. h 6. i 10. b 14. g 3. e 7. m 11. o 15. f 4. k 8. l 12. n 32 PART B (figure 21.5) 1. Extensor carpi radialis brevis 7. Extensor carpi ulnaris 2. Extensor carpi radialis longus 8. Flexor digitorum profundus 3. Pronator teres 9. Flexor digitorum superficialis 4. Brachioradialis 10. Flexor carpi ulnaris 5. Flexor carpi radialis 11. Palmaris longus 6. Extensor digitorum PART C 1. rhomboideus major 9. pronator teres 2. serratus anterior 10. pronator quadratus 3. pectoralis minor 11. brachioradialis 4. coracobrachialis 12. flexor carpi radialis 5. teres major 13. palmaris longus 6. subscapularis 14. extensor carpi radialis longus 7. teres minor 15. extensor carpi ulnaris 8. brachialis Critical Thinking Application Answers PART D (figure 21.6) 1. Trapezius 12. Biceps brachii 2. Deltoid 13. Triceps brachii 3. Pectoralis major 14. Latissimus dorsi 4. Rectus abdominis 15. Pectoralis major 5. Sternocleidomastoid 16. Serratus anterior 6. Biceps brachii 17. Biceps brachii 7. Serratus anterior 18. Trapezius 8. External oblique 19. Deltoid 9. Deltoid 20. Triceps brachii 10. Trapezius 21. Brachioradialis 11. Infraspinatus 33 LABORATORY EXERCISE 22 MUSCLES OF THE DEEP BACK, ABDOMINAL WALL, AND PELVIC OUTLET Figure Labels FIG. 22.1 1. Iliocostalis 2. Longissimus 3. Spinalis FIG. 22.2 1. Rectus abdominis 3. Transversus abdominis 2. Internal oblique 4. External oblique FIG. 22.3 1. Ischiocavernosus 4. Levator ani 2. Bulbospongiosus 5. Gluteus maximus 3. Superficial transversus perinei 6. External anal sphincter FIG. 22.4 1. Ischiocavernosus 4. Levator ani 2. Bulbospongiosus 5. Gluteus maximus 3. Superficial transversus perinei 6. External anal sphincter Critical Thinking Application Answer An appendectomy incision would involve the external oblique, internal oblique, and transversus abdominis muscles from superficial to deep. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. linea alba 2. rectus abdominis 3. transversus abdominis 4. tense the abdominal wall and compress the contents of the abdominal cavity 5. tense the abdominal wall and flex the vertebral column 6. erector spinae group PART B 1. pelvic diaphragm 6. ischial tuberosity 2. anal canal and vagina 7. levator ani 3. support the pelvic viscera and provide sphincterlike action in the anal canal and vagina (aid the levator ani) 8. support the pelvic viscera 9. ischial spine 10. sphincter urethrae 4. bulbospongiosus 5. constrict the vagina 34 LABORATORY EXERCISE 23 MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND LOWER LIMB Figure Labels FIG. 23.1 1. Psoas major 6. Vastus lateralis 2. Iliacus 7. Adductor longus 3. Tensor fasciae latae 8. Gracilis 4. Sartorius 9. Vastus medialis 5. Rectus femoris FIG. 23.2 1. Gluteus medius 5. Sartorius 2. Gluteus maximus 6. Rectus femoris 3. Biceps femoris 7. Vastus lateralis 4. Tensor fasciae latae FIG. 23.3 1. Adductor magnus 5. Gastrocnemius 2. Gracilis 6. Gluteus medius 3. Semitendinosus 7. Gluteus maximus 4. Semimembranosus 8. Biceps femoris FIG. 23.4 1. Tibialis anterior 3. Extensor digitorum longus 2. Peroneus (fibularis) longus 4. Peroneus (fibularis) brevis FIG. 23.5 1. Gastrocnemius 4. Tibialis anterior 2. Soleus 5. Extensor digitorum longus 3. Peroneus (fibularis) longus 6. Peroneus (fibularis) brevis FIG. 23.6 1. Gastrocnemius 4. Peroneus (fibularis) longus 2. Soleus 5. Peroneus (fibularis) brevis 3. Flexor digitorum longus Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. c 6. b 2. d 7. j 3. f 8. a 4. h 9. g 5. e 10. i 35 PART B 1. gluteus medius and gluteus minimus 6. vastus lateralis 2. adductor magnus 7. semitendinosus 3. sartorius 8. vastus medialis 4. gastrocnemius 9. flexor digitorum longus 5. tensor fasciae latae 10. tibialis anterior PART C (figure 23.7) 1. Gastrocnemius 5. Flexor digitorum longus 2. Peroneus (fibularis) longus 6. Tibialis posterior 3. Extensor digitorum longus 7. Tibialis anterior 4. Soleus Critical Thinking Application Answers PART D (figure 23.8) 1. Rectus femoris 5. Vastus medialis 2. Vastus medialis 6. Tibialis anterior 3. Vastus lateralis 7. Gastrocnemius 4. Sartorius 8. Soleus 36 LABORATORY EXERCISE 24 CAT DISSECTION: MUSCULATURE Instructional Suggestions 1. You may want to provide the students with embalmed cats that have been preskinned. Such cats are available from various biological supply companies. The use of preskinned cats will save about an hour of class time and avoid the unpleasantness that some students associate with the skinning procedure. 2. You may want to reduce the amount of time spent in dissecting the cat muscles by having the students dissect only selected areas of the cat. For example, you might have them complete Procedure D (muscles of the thorax), Procedure E (muscles of the abdominal wall), Procedure F (muscles of the shoulder and back), and Procedure H (muscles of the hip and hind limb), omitting the other sections. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. sternocleidomastoid 2. masseter 3. sternohyoid, mylohyoid PART B 1. pectoantebrachialis 5. external oblique 2. xiphihumeralis 6. internal oblique 3. pectoralis major 7. transversus abdominis 4. pectoralis minor 8. rectus abdominis PART C 1. clavotrapezius 6. spinodeltoid 2. acromiotrapezius 7. supraspinatus 3. spinotrapezius 8. infraspinatus 4. clavodeltoid 9. infraspinatus 5. acromiodeltoid 10. teres major PART D 1. biceps brachii 3. epitrochlearis 2. brachialis 4. triceps brachii PART E (figure 24.12) 1. Tensor fasciae latae 9. Vastus medialis 2. Sartorius 10. Biceps femoris 3. Rectus femoris 11. Semitendinosus 4. Adductor longus 12. Semimembranosus 5. Vastus lateralis 13. Gastrocnemius 6. Peroneus (fibularis) longus 14. Gluteus medius 7. Tibialis anterior 15. Gluteus maximus 8. Gracilis 37 LABORATORY EXERCISE 25 NERVOUS TISSUE AND NERVES Figure Labels FIG. 25.1 1. Chromatophilic substance (Nissl bodies) 6. Axon (nerve fiber) 2. Dendrites 7. Schwann cell 3. Nucleus 8. Cell body 4. Nucleolus 9. Neurofibrils 5. Nodes of Ranvier FIG. 25.2 1. Neurilemmal sheath (of Schwann cell) 3. Schwann cell nucleus 2. Myelin (of Schwann cell) 4. Axon (nerve fiber) Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. g 3. h 5. e 7. a 2. c 4. f 6. d 8. b PART B 1. d 3. h 5. e 7. c 2. f 4. g 6. a 8. b 3. (sketch) 2. (sketch) PART C 1. (sketch) 2. (sketch) PART D 1. (sketch) 38 LABORATORY EXERCISE 26 NERVE IMPULSE STIMULATION Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. potassium 8. repolarization 2. sodium 9. refractory period 3. potassium 10. all-or-none 4. resting potential 11. lipid 5. depolarized 12. Schwann cells 6. summation 13. saltatory 7. repolarized 14. faster PART B 1. Answers will vary. 3. Answers will vary. 2. Answers will vary. 4. Answers will vary. 39 LABORATORY EXERCISE 27 THE MENINGES AND SPINAL CORD Figure Labels FIG. 27.1 1. Spinal nerve 6. Epidural space 2. Dorsal root ganglion 7. Ventral root of spinal nerve 3. Gray matter 8. Dorsal root of spinal nerve 4. Subarachnoid space 9. White matter 5. Body of vertebra FIG. 27.2 1. Posterior funiculus 6. Anterior funiculus 2. Posterior horn 7. Posterior median sulcus 3. Lateral funiculus 8. Central canal 4. Lateral horn 9. Gray commissure 5. Anterior horn 10. Anterior median fissure FIG. 27.3 12 11 4 10 9 2 5 3 7 1 8 6 Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. b 3. d 5. g 2. c 4. f 6. a PART B 1. spinal nerves 7. gray commissure 2. cervical enlargement 8. central canal 3. lumbar enlargement 9. funiculi 4. posterior median sulcus 10. nerve tracts 5. horns 11. meninges 6. anterior PART C 1. b 4. d 2. e 5. c 3. a PART D (figure 27.4) 1. Dorsal root of spinal nerve 5. Gray matter 2. White matter 6. Dorsal root ganglion 3. Ventral root of spinal nerve 7. Anterior median fissure 4. Posterior median sulcus 8. Central canal 40 7. e LABORATORY EXERCISE 28 THE REFLEX ARC AND REFLEXES Figure Labels FIG. 28.1 5 1 3 2 4 Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Nerve pathways 7. quadriceps femoris 2. central nervous system (spinal cord) 8. upright posture 3. Reflexes 9. skin 4. muscles 10. Flexor 5. sensory 11. flexion 6. quadriceps femoris 12. Babinski PART B 1. Table: Response Observed Effector Involved Extension of leg Quadriceps femoris Plantar flexion Gastrocnemius and soleus Flexion of forearm or slight biceps twitch Biceps brachii Extension of forearm or slight triceps twitch Triceps brachii Plantar flexion of foot and flexion of toes Gastrocnemius, soleus, and flexor digitorum longus 2. The quadriceps femoris is stretched, stimulating stretch receptors within the muscle. As a result, impulses pass along sensory neurons into the spinal cord and synapse with a motor neuron. Motor impulses travel out of the cord on nerve fibers that lead to the quadriceps femoris. Muscle fibers contract, and the leg is extended. Critical Thinking Application Answer All of these reflexes are rapid, subconscious responses to physical stimuli. 41 LABORATORY EXERCISE 29 THE BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES Figure Labels FIG. 29.1 12 10 6 7 1 4 11 9 8 3 5 2 FIG. 29.2 1. Frontal lobe 3. Parietal lobe 2. Temporal lobe 4. Occipital lobe FIG. 29.3 1. Motor area for voluntary muscle control 4. Cutaneous sensory area 2. Motor speech area (Broca’s area) 5. General interpretative area 3. Auditory area 6. Visual area FIG. 29.4 1. (I) Olfactory nerve 7. (VII) Facial nerve 2. (II) Optic nerve 8. (VIII) Vestibulocochlear nerve 3. (III) Oculomotor nerve 9. (IX) Glossopharyngeal nerve 4. (IV) Trochlear nerve 10. (X) Vagus nerve 5. (V) Trigeminal nerve 11. (XI) Accessory nerve 6. (VI) Abducens nerve 12. (XII) Hypoglossal nerve Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. j 8. l 2. f 9. h 3. k 10. e 4. d 11. m 5. c 12. g 6. a 13. b 7. i 42 PART B Table: Location Major Functions Anterior to primary motor cortex (frontal lobe) Coordinates speech Medulla oblongata Regulates heartbeat Between cerebellum and brain stem Relays impulses to and from cerebellum Midbrain Provides motor pathways between cerebrum and lower parts Midbrain Contains visual and auditory reflex centers Frontal lobe superior to Broca's area Controls voluntary movements of eyes and eyelids Diencephalon Regulates body temperature and many visceral activities Diencephalon floor and associated inner cerebrum Controls emotional feelings Medulla oblongata Regulates rate and depth of breathing Brain stem Activates state of wakefulness Diencephalon Relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex Medulla oblongata Controls diameter of blood vessels and blood pressure PART C (figure 29.5) 1. Corpus callosum 6. Pons 2. Thalamus 7. Medulla oblongata 3. Hypothalamus 8. Brain stem 4. Diencephalon 9. Cerebrum 5. Midbrain 10. Cerebellum PART D 1. vestibulocochlear 9. oculomotor 2. facial, glossopharyngeal 10. oculomotor 3. optic 11. oculomotor, trochlear, abducens 4. olfactory 12. facial, glossopharyngeal 5. vestibulocochlear 13. accessory 6. trigeminal 14. vagus, accessory, hypoglossal 7. trigeminal 15. glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal 8. oculomotor 43 LABORATORY EXERCISE 30 DISSECTION OF THE SHEEP BRAIN Instructional Suggestion Rather than have students dissect sheep brains, you might want to provide the class with samples of whole sheep brains and sectioned brains for examination. This should extend the use of the available specimens. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. The human cerebral hemispheres are relatively larger than those of the sheep. 5. The olfactory bulbs of the sheep brain are larger than those of the human brain. 2. There are more convolutions and sulci in the human cerebrum. 6. The olfactory, optic, and trigeminal nerves seem to be most highly developed in the sheep brain. 3. The human cerebrum with its larger size and greater number of convolutions is more complex and thus able to carry on more complex functions. 7. The senses of smell and sight and the sensory functions associated with the trigeminal nerve are highly developed. 4. The human cerebellum is divided in the midline (vermis) into two hemispheres, whereas the sheep cerebellum is not divided. Critical Thinking Application Answers PART B 1–5. Answers will vary. The sheep brain and the human brain features are more similar than different. Therefore a complete list of similar features would be very long. Among similar features include two cerebral hemispheres, medulla oblongata, pineal gland, midbrain, thalamus, hypothalamus, pons, olfactory bulb, four ventricles, and others. (Note only 5 answers are needed.) 44 LABORATORY EXERCISE 31 RECEPTORS AND SOMATIC SENSES Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. chemoreceptors 9. touch 2. pain 10. pressure 3. thermoreceptors 11. 25C (77F) and 45C (113F) 4. mechanoreceptors 12. 10C (50F) and 20C (68F) 5. photoreceptors 13. nerve tissue of the brain 6. sensation (perception) 14. pain receptors 7. projection 15. referred pain 8. sensory adaptation 3. Answers will vary. 2. Answers will vary. 3. Answers will vary. PART B 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results) PART C 1. (experimental results) PART D 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results) 45 LABORATORY EXERCISE 32 SENSES OF SMELL AND TASTE Figure Labels FIG. 32.1 6 1 5 2 3 4 7 FIG. 32.3 6 5 1 3 4 2 Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. bipolar 6. olfactory tracts 2. cilia 7. frontal 3. water 8. sensory adaptation 4. cribriform plate 9. outside environment 5. crista galli 10. odorless 3. Answers will vary. PART B 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results) Critical Thinking Application Answer Answers will vary. Any variation in time for sensory adaptation could be a result of the concentration of the test substance, volatility of the test substance, or the number of receptors for the test substance. PART C 1. epithelial 5. receptor 2. taste pore 6. acids 3. taste hairs (microvilli) 7. salts 4. water 8. bitter 2. Answers will vary. PART D 1. (experimental results) 46 LABORATORY EXERCISE 33 THE EAR AND HEARING Figure Labels FIG. 33.1 1. Auricle 7. Vestibulocochlear nerve 2. Malleus 8. Oval window 3. Incus 9. Tympanic membrane (eardrum) 4. Semicircular canals 10. Auditory (Eustachian) tube 5. Stapes 11. External auditory meatus 6. Cochlea FIG. 33.2 4 2 3 7 5 6 1 8 9 FIG. 33.3a and b 1. Scala vestibuli 5. Organ of Corti (spiral organ) 2. Vestibular membrane 6. Tectorial membrane 3. Cochlear duct 7. Hair cell (receptor cell) 4. Scala tympani 8. Sensory nerve fibers of cochlear nerve Critical Thinking Application Answer The largest ear structure is the auricle which is able to trap and funnel a minute sound wave into the middle and inner ear structures. This will allow a concentration of the vibrations making the sound detection more likely to occur. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. i 5. k 9. n 13. f 2. l 6. h 10. j 14. a 3. d 7. c 11. o 15. g 4. m 8. b 12. e PART B (figure 33.7) 1. Cochlear duct 4. Basilar membrane 2. Tectorial membrane 5. Scala tympani 3. Hair cells (receptor cells) PART C 1. (experimental results) 3. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results) 4. Answers will vary. 47 LABORATORY EXERCISE 34 SENSE OF EQUILIBRIUM Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. utricle 6. ampulla 2. temporal 7. crista ampullaris 3. macula 8. cupula 4. calcium carbonate 9. inertia 5. vestibulocochlear (vestibular branch) 10. cerebellum PART B 1. a. The eyes, inner ears, and proprioceptors provide information needed to maintain equilibrium when the eyes are open. c. With the eyes closed, such a person would receive very little sensory information needed to maintain equilibrium. b. The inner ears and proprioceptors provide such information when the eyes are closed. 2. a. 3. (experimental results) b. Probably yes; this demonstrates the importance of visual information in maintaining equilibrium. Critical Thinking Application Answer Vision, touch, and proprioception would all supplement equilibrium. 48 a. (experimental results) b. Answers will vary. LABORATORY EXERCISE 35 THE EYE Figure Labels FIG. 35.1 1. Lacrimal gland 3. Lacrimal sac 2. Superior and inferior canaliculi 4. Nasolacrimal duct FIG. 35.2 1. Superior oblique 5. Lateral rectus 2. Superior rectus 6. Inferior rectus 3. Levator palpebrae superioris 7. Inferior oblique 4. Medial rectus FIG. 35.3 1. Suspensory ligaments 9. Sclera 2. Iris 10. Optic disk 3. Cornea 11. Optic nerve 4. Pupil 12. Fovea centralis 5. Lens 13. Vitreous humor 6. Aqueous humor 14. Posterior cavity 7. Anterior cavity 15. Retina 8. Ciliary body 16. Choroid coat Critical Thinking Application Answer The delicate retina is only located next to the choroid coat by the pressure maintained by the vitreous humor. Any alteration of this pressure could allow the retina to detach as was easily observed during the dissection. No connective tissue was observed between the inner and middle tunics of the eye. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. b 11. k 2. l 12. m 3. e 13. c 4. d 14. h 5. g 15. 6. i Cornea, aqueous humor, pupil of iris, lens, vitreous humor, retina 7. n 16. 8. j More rods than cones; rods stimulated by dim light; cones enable perception of color [other answers could be acceptable]. 9. f 10. a 49 PART B 1. The outer tunic/layer (sclera) is toughest. 2. Dense (fibrous) connective tissue. 5. The dark pigment absorbs excess light and keeps the eye dark inside. 3. The pupil of the dissected eye probably was elliptical in shape, and the human pupil is round. 6. The lens is biconvex, flexible, and transparent. It may be firm and opaque in a preserved eye. 4. Aqueous humor occurs between the cornea and the lens. 7. The vitreous humor is a transparent, jellylike fluid. PART C (figure 35.10) 1. Aqueous humor 7. Vitreous humor 2. Lens 8. Optic disk 3. Cornea 9. Optic nerve 4. Iris 10. Choroid coat/middle tunic 5. Conjunctiva 11. Sclera/outer tunic 6. Retina/inner tunic 50 LABORATORY EXERCISE 36 VISUAL TESTS AND DEMONSTRATIONS Critical Thinking Application Answer When using both eyes for observations, if the image of a small object falls on the optic disk of one eye, the object is still seen by the other eye. This can be confirmed because the blind-spot demonstration will not work with both eyes open. Laboratory Report Answers Part A 1. (experimental results) 2. (experimental results) 3. (experimental results) 4. (experimental results) 5. a. A person with 20/70 vision can see from 20 feet what the normal eye sees from 70 feet. This person has less than normal vision. c. Astigmatism results in blurred vision because some parts of the image on the retina are in focus, while other parts are not in focus. d. The elastic quality of the lens tends to decrease with age. e. The retina is lacking cones that are sensitive to red or green wave lengths (an X-linked/sexlinked trait). b. A person with 20/10 vision can see from 20 feet what the normal eye sees from 10 feet. This person has better than normal vision. PART B 1. (experimental results) 2. The optic disk lacks receptors (rods and cones) and thus creates a blind spot in the retina. 3. The photopupillary reflex involves the construction of the pupil in response to exposure to bright light. 51 4. The photopupillary reflex occurs in both eyes even when one eye is shielded from the light; however, the shielded eye may not show as much change as the exposed one. 5. When an eye is focused on a close object, the pupil constricts. 6. When the eyes are focused on a close object, they converge toward the midline. LABORATORY EXERCISE 37 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Figure Labels FIG. 37.1 1. Pineal gland 6. Pituitary gland 2. Parathyroid glands 7. Thyroid gland 3. Pancreas 8. Thymus 4. Testis (male) 9. Adrenal gland 5. Hypothalamus 10. Ovary (female) FIG. 37.2 1. Anterior pituitary gland 4. Pituitary stalk 2. Sphenoid bone 5. Posterior pituitary gland 3. Hypothalamus 6. Sella turcica FIG. 37.3 1 Thyroid gland 5. Colloid 2. Trachea 6. Follicular cell 3. Larynx 7. Extrafollicular cell 4. Isthmus FIG. 37.4 1. Pharynx 4. Esophagus 2. Thyroid gland 5. Trachea 3. Parathyroid glands FIG. 37.5 1. Medulla 4. Zona fasciculata 2. Cortex 5. Zona reticularis 3. Zona glomerulosa FIG. 37.6 1. Common bile duct 5. Pancreatic duct 2. Gallbladder 6. Pancreas 3. Small intestine 7. Duct (of exocrine cells) 4. Digestive enzyme-secreting cells (exocrine cells) 8. Islet of Langerhans (endocrine cells) Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. Growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin 2. Antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin 3. a. follicle-stimulating hormone b. antidiuretic hormone c. growth hormone d. luteinizing hormone 52 e. thyroid-stimulating hormone f. oxytocin g. adrenocorticotropic hormone h. prolactin 4. Thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3) 5. Calcitonin 6. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) 7. Bones, intestines, kidneys 8. Epinephrine (adrenalin), norepinephrine (noradrenalin) 9. Increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, rise in blood sugar concentration, increased breathing rate, increased metabolic rate, dilation of airways, decreased activity in the digestive tract [These are seven possible responses for five requested.] 10. 11. Kidneys conserve sodium ions, kidneys increase excretion of potassium ions, kidneys conserve water (reduce urine volume) 12. Cortisol (hydrocortisone) 13. Increased blood concentration of amino acids by inhibiting protein synthesis; increased release and use of fatty acids; increased gluconeogenesis, which increases blood sugar 14. Insulin from beta cells, glucagon from alpha cells Aldosterone Critical Thinking Application Answer Glucagon stimulates change of glycogen to glucose, causing an increase in the blood glucose concentration. Insulin causes a decrease in the blood glucose concentration by promoting the transport of glucose into cells. PART B (sketches) 53 LABORATORY EXERCISE 38 BLOOD CELLS WARNING Because of the possibility of blood-borne infections being transmitted from one student to another if blood slides are prepared in the classroom, it is suggested that commercially prepared blood slides be used in this exercise. The instructor, however, may wish to demonstrate the procedure for preparing such a slide. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. erythrocytes 10. neutrophil 2. biconcave 11. neutrophils 3. transporting and exchanging gases 12. eosinophils 4. hemoglobin 13. basophils 5. oxyhemoglobin 14. monocytes 6. nuclei 15. lymphocytes 7. leukocytes 16. megakaryocytes 8. granulocytes 17. collagen 9. agranulocytes 18. serotonin 2. Answers will vary. PART B (sketches) PART C 1. (experimental results) Critical Thinking Application Answer A total white blood cell count provides the number of white blood cells in a given volume of blood; a differential white blood cell count gives the relative percentages of types of white blood cells in a blood sample. 54 LABORATORY EXERCISE 39 BLOOD TESTINGA DEMONSTRATION WARNING Because of the possibility of blood-borne infections being transmitted from one student to another during blood-testing procedures, it is suggested that the following demonstrations be performed by the instructor. Laboratory Report Answers PART A (demonstration results) PART B 1. Answers will vary. 2. Various forms of anemia and severe hemorrhage will produce a decreased red blood cell percentage. 3. Polycythemia, due to dehydration, shock, or excessive production of red blood cells, will produce an increased percentage of red blood cells. 3. Polycythemia, obstructive pulmonary diseases, congestive heart failure, and living at high altitudes may cause an increased hemoglobin content. 3. Severe dehydration, diarrhea, exercise, living at high altitudes, rise in temperature, or polycythemia may cause an increased red blood cell count. 3. Acute infections, leukemia, infectious mononucleosis, and menstruation may cause an increased white blood cell count. PART C 1. Answers will vary. 2. Iron-deficiency anemia, lack of certain amino acids or vitamin B12, pregnancy, severe hemorrhage, excessive menstrual flow, or excessive fluid intake may cause a decreased hemoglobin content. PART D 1. Answers will vary. 2. Anemia, leukemia, and severe hemorrhage may cause a decreased red blood cell count. PART E 1. Answers will vary. 2. Aplastic anemia and adverse drug reactions may cause a decreased white blood cell count. Critical Thinking Application Answer RBC percentage (hematocrit), hemoglobin, and RBC count are all blood tests that could indicate anemia. 55 LABORATORY EXERCISE 40 BLOOD TYPING WARNING Because of the possibility of blood-borne infections being transmitted from one student to another if blood-testing is performed in the classroom, it is suggested that commercially prepared blood-typing kits, containing virus-free human blood, be used for ABO blood typing. The instructor may wish to demonstrate Rh blood typing. Critical Thinking Application Answer The anti-A serum would contain anti-A antibodies if clumping was observed for a person with type A blood. The anti-B serum would contain anti-B antibodies if clumping was observed for a person with type B blood. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. red blood cell membranes 6. anti-A 2. four 7. AB 3. A 8. O 4. B 9. two to eight months 5. anti-B PART B 1. (experimental results) 25. Answers will vary. PART C 1. rhesus monkey 4. Rh-negative 2. antigen D 5. clump (agglutinate) 3. Rh-negative 6. Rh-positive PART D 1. (demonstration results) 25. Answers will vary. 56 LABORATORY EXERCISE 41 STRUCTURE OF THE HEART Instructional Suggestions 1. 2. You may want to have the students use colored pencils to color the features of the heart and blood vessels in figure 41.3. This activity should help them observe the illustrations more carefully and locate the various features shown from different views in the figures. They can check their work by referring to the corresponding figures in the textbook, which are presented in full color. 3. To reduce the cost of specimens used, you might provide predissected, preserved sheep hearts for observation and save the specimens for use with other classes. 4. Fresh beef hearts are sometimes available from meat-packing houses. You might want to demonstrate the dissection of this large heart. Try to make sure that the atria and large blood vessels are left attached for this purpose. Instead of using preserved sheep hearts, you might want to provide fresh pig hearts for dissection. Figure Labels FIG. 41.1 1. Aorta 7. Pulmonary trunk 2. Superior vena cava 8. Left atrium 3. Right atrium 9. Left coronary artery 4. Right coronary artery 10. Great cardiac vein 5. Right ventricle 11. Left ventricle 6. Inferior vena cava FIG. 41.2 1. Aorta 6. Apex of the heart 2. Left pulmonary artery 7. Superior vena cava 3. Left pulmonary veins 8. Right atrium 4. Left atrium 9. Inferior vena cava 5. Left ventricle 10. Right ventricle FIG. 41.3 1. Aorta 10. Pulmonary trunk 2. Superior vena cava 11. Left pulmonary veins 3. Aortic valve 12. Left atrium 4. Right atrium 13. Pulmonary valve 5. Opening of coronary sinus 14. Bicuspid (mitral) valve 6. Tricuspid valve 15. Papillary muscle 7. Chordae tendineae 16. Interventricular septum 8. Inferior vena cava 17. Left ventricle 9. Left pulmonary artery 18. Right ventricle 57 Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. c 9. h 2. k 10. j 3. o 11. l 4. m 12. e 5. i 13. f 6. d 14. a 7. n 15. b 8. g 4. The thicker wall of the aorta allows it to withstand the higher pressure of the blood pumped out from the left ventricle. The thinner wall of the pulmonary trunk (artery) is related to the lower pressure of the blood that leaves the right ventricle. 5. Vena cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary artery, capillary of lungs, pulmonary vein, left atrium, bicuspid (mitral) valve, left ventricle, aortic valve, aorta PART B 1. The tricuspid valve is composed of three relatively large cusps that contain chordae tendineae; the pulmonary valve is made up of three smaller pocketlike cusps that lack chordae tendineae. 2. The cusps of the tricuspid valve move upward into a horizontal position and close the opening between the right atrium and the right ventricle. 3. The chordae tendineae and papillary muscles prevent the cusps of the tricuspid and bicuspid valves from swinging into the atria when the ventricles contract. Critical Thinking Application Answer The thicker wall of the left ventricle allows it to contract with greater force and create the high pressure needed to move blood to all parts of the body (systemic circuit) except the lungs. The thinner wall of the right ventricle creates the lower pressure needed to move blood a relatively short distance to the lungs (pulmonary circuit). 58 LABORATORY EXERCISE 42 THE CARDIAC CYCLE Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. 70 6. ventricles 2. systole 7. vibrations 3. diastole 8. A-V valves 4. closed 9. pulmonary and aortic valves 5. open 10. murmur 2. (experimental results) PART B 1. (experimental results) PART C 1. cardiac muscle 9. ventricles 2. S-A (sinoatrial) 10. ventricles 3. A-V (atrioventricular) 11. 4. A-V bundle (bundle of His) 5. Purkinje fibers 6. cardiac cycle Atrial repolarization occurs at the same time that the ventricular fibers depolarize. The QRS complex indicating ventricular depolarization obscures any recording of the atrial repolarization. 7. polarized 12. tachycardia; bradycardia 8. atria 5. Because each QRS wave in the pattern indicates a ventricular contraction, the heart rate can be determined by counting the QRS waves that occur in a minute. 6. (experimental results) PART D 1. (labeled ECG recordings) 2. Answers will vary. 3. Normal is 0.120.20 sec. 4. The P-Q (P-R) interval indicates the time it takes for the atria to depolarize and the cardiac impulse to reach the A-V node. Critical Thinking Application Answer 36 59 LABORATORY EXERCISE 43 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CARDIAC CYCLE Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. pump the blood to the lungs and body cells 7. medulla oblongata 2. S-A node 8. blood pressure (stretch) 3. vagus 9. sympathetic (accelerator) 4. acetylcholine 10. increase 5. accelerator 11. potassium (K+), calcium (Ca++) 6. norepinephrine (noradrenalin) 4. The S-A node activity at room temperature is slower than the human resting heart rate. Colder temperatures slow the rate; warmer temperatures increase the rate. 2. Normally the rate and force of contractions decrease by altering the usual polarized state of cardiac muscle cells. Excessive potassium ions may result in cardiac arrest. PART B 1. The atria contract as a unit followed by the contraction of the ventricle (single in frogs). 2. (experimental results) 3. (experimental results) PART C 1. The force (amplitude) of the contractions normally increases as calcium ions help initiate muscle contractions. There is danger of prolonged contraction. Critical Thinking Application Answer This will allow the ionization to occur providing K+ and Ca++ when in a solution of water. 60 LABORATORY EXERCISE 44 BLOOD VESSELS Instructional Suggestions If live frogs are not available for the microscopic observation of blood vessels, you might want to provide small goldfish. The head of a fish can be wrapped loosely in wet cotton to keep its gills moist, and the fish can be placed on a glass plate on the stage of a microscope. If its tail is spread out beneath a microscope slide, the blood vessels can be observed with low- and high-power magnification. However, if the fish is not returned to water within a few minutes, it will likely die. Figure Labels FIG. 44.1 1. Tunica interna 2. Tunica media 3. Tunica externa FIG. 44.2 1 3 4 2 Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. endothelium 11. precapillary sphincters 2. tunica media (middle layer) 12. diffusion 3. tunica externa (outer layer) 13. lipid 4. vasoconstriction 14. pores 5. vasodilation 15. hydrostatic 6. arteriovenous shunt 16. osmotic 7. capillaries 17. lymphatic 8. small 18. histamine 9. blood-brain barrier 19. valves 10. greater 20. veins PART B 1. (sketch) 2. (sketch) 3. The tunica interna and tunica externa are similar in the artery and vein. The tunica media of the artery contains relatively greater amounts of smooth muscle and elastic tissue than that of the vein. Critical Thinking Application Answer Because arteries are under higher pressure than veins, the thicker arterial walls help to maintain the strength and elasticity necessary against their walls. 61 PART C 1. The blood in an arteriole moves with a pulsating rapid flow, whereas that in a venule moves with a steady slower flow. 2. A capillary could be identified by its small diameter and the presence of blood cells moving in single file. 62 3. Blood moves fastest in arterioles, somewhat slower in venules, and slowest in capillaries. 4. If noted, the flow from an arteriole into a capillary will change from continuous flow to an interrupted flow and may cease flow for brief periods of time. This irregular flow into the capillary is a result of changes caused by the precapillary sphincter. LABORATORY EXERCISE 45 PULSE RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE Instructional Suggestions The following suggestions should be considered when trying to obtain an accurate blood pressure: 1. The room environment should have a moderate temperature and be quiet (no talking). 2. The client needs to be relaxed and comfortable. A temporary increase in blood pressure could exist from smoking, pain, anxiety, or a full urinary bladder. 3. Palpate the pulse first so that you are certain to pump the cuff high enough to not miss the first tapping sound. It also assures that you do not pump the cuff so high that we alter the blood pressure when releasing air. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. arterial 7. millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) 2. systolic 8. systolic 3. diastolic 9. pulse pressure 4. heart 10. diastolic 5. pressure 11. brachial 6. sphygmomanometer 2. Answers will vary. PART B 1. (test results) PART C 1. (test results) 3. Answers will vary. 2. (test results) 4. Answers will vary. Critical Thinking Application Answer A palpated pulse would be characteristic of the systolic pressure as the arterial wall is expanding at that moment under the higher pressure. 63 LABORATORY EXERCISE 46 MAJOR ARTERIES AND VEINS Figure Labels FIG. 46.1 1. Superior vena cava 4. Pulmonary veins 2. Pulmonary trunk 5. Pulmonary artery 3. Inferior vena cava 6. Aorta Critical Thinking Application Answer The left ventricle wall is thicker which provides a more powerful contraction to force the blood through the longer distance of the systemic circuit. FIG. 46.2 1. Superficial temporal artery 6. Facial artery 2. Internal carotid artery 7. Superior thyroid artery 3. External carotid artery 8. Common carotid artery 4. Vertebral artery 9. Brachiocephalic artery 5. Subclavian artery FIG. 46.3 1. Subclavian artery 4. Brachial artery 2. Axillary artery 5. Radial artery 3. Deep brachial artery 6. Ulnar artery FIG. 46.4 1. Celiac artery 5. Left gastric artery 2. Hepatic artery 6. Superior mesenteric artery 3. Renal artery 7. Inferior mesenteric artery 4. Splenic artery 8. Common iliac arteries FIG. 46.5 1. Right common iliac artery 6. Femoral artery 2. External iliac artery 7. Anterior tibial artery 3. Deep femoral artery 8. Posterior tibial artery 4. Abdominal aorta 9. Dorsalis pedis artery 5. Internal iliac artery FIG. 46.6 1. External jugular vein 4. Internal jugular vein 2. Vertebral vein 5. Brachiocephalic vein 3. Subclavian vein 64 FIG. 46.7 1. External jugular vein 8. Internal jugular vein 2. Subclavian vein 9. Brachiocephalic vein 3. Superior vena cava 10. Cephalic vein 4. Axillary vein 11. Superior hemiazygos vein 5. Brachial vein 12. Posterior intercostal vein 6. Basilic vein 13. Inferior hemiazygos vein 7. Azygos vein FIG. 46.8 1. Internal jugular vein 7. Cephalic vein 2. External jugular vein 8. Basilic vein 3. Subclavian vein 9. Median cubital vein 4. Right brachiocephalic vein 10. Radial vein 5. Axillary vein 11. Ulnar vein 6. Brachial vein FIG. 46.9 1. Hepatic portal vein 4. Splenic vein 2. Superior mesenteric vein 5. Inferior mesenteric vein 3. Gastric vein (right) 6. Inferior vena cava FIG. 46.10 1. Common iliac vein 6. Great saphenous vein 2. External iliac vein 7. Popliteal vein 3. Inferior vena cava 8. Anterior tibial vein 4. Internal iliac vein 9. Dorsalis pedis vein 5. Femoral vein Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. e 9. i 2. n 10. m 3. l 11. j 4. b 12. f 5. a 13. g 6. h 14. o 7. d 15. k 8. c PART B 1. right subclavian artery 6. vertebral artery 2. aortic arch 7. facial artery 3. superior mesenteric artery 8. brachial artery 4. inferior mesenteric artery 9. external iliac artery 5. right common carotid artery 10. left and right pulmonary arteries 65 PART C 1. a 5. h 2. b 6. c 3. d 7. g 4. e 8. f PART D 1. right brachiocephalic vein 6. femoral vein 2. popliteal vein 7. hepatic portal vein 3. common iliac vein 8. pulmonary veins 4. basilic vein 9. renal vein 5. anterior tibial vein PART E (figure 46.11) 1. Common carotid artery 9. Subclavian vein 2. Brachiocephalic vein 10. Pulmonary vein 3. Superior vena cava 11. Inferior vena cava 4. Femoral vein 12. Aorta 5. Great saphenous vein 13. Common iliac vein 6. Internal jugular vein 14. Common iliac artery 7. External jugular vein 15. Femoral artery 8. Subclavian artery 66 LABORATORY EXERCISE 47 CAT DISSECTION: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. The parietal pericardium forms a relatively thick, tough sac that encloses the heart. It is attached to the large blood vessels at the base of the heart and to the diaphragm. 2. The walls of the atria are much thinner than those of the ventricles. The wall of the left ventricle is much thicker than that of the right ventricle. 3. Wall thickness is related to the force of its contraction and the amount of pressure it imparts to the blood inside a heart chamber. The left ventricle has the thickest wall, contracts with the greatest force, and creates the greatest amount of blood pressure in the heart chambers. The left ventricle is the pump for the systemic circuit. 4. In the human, the right common carotid artery branches from the brachiocephalic artery, whereas the left common carotid artery comes directly from the aortic arch. In the cat, both common carotid arteries branch from the brachiocephalic artery. 5. In the human, the aorta divides to form the two common iliac arteries, which in turn give rise to external and internal iliac arteries. In the cat, the aorta divides to form the external iliac arteries, and the internal iliac arteries branch from the aorta independently. PART B 1. In the human, the brachiocephalic vein is formed by the union of the internal jugular and the subclavian vein on each side. In the cat, the brachiocephalic vein is formed by the union of the external jugular and the subclavian vein on each side. 2. In the human, the internal jugular vein is somewhat larger than the external jugular vein. In the cat, the external jugular vein is larger. 3. Answers will vary. 67 LABORATORY EXERCISE 48 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Figure Labels FIG. 48.1 3 1 2 4 6 5 FIG. 48.2 3 2 1 5 6 4 Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. lymphatic capillaries 6. lymph nodes 2. squamous epithelial 7. intestinal 3. lymph 8. jugular 4. veins 9. thoracic (left lymphatic) duct 5. valves PART B 1. lymphocytes 6. tonsils 2. hilum 7. Peyer's patches 3. nodules 8. scalp, face, nasal cavity, and pharynx 4. lymph sinuses 9. inguinal 5. afferent PART C 1. mediastinum 7. hilum 2. puberty 8. blood 3. adipose and connective tissues 9. white pulp 4. bone marrow 10. red pulp 5. thymosin 11. macrophages 6. spleen PART D (sketches) 68 LABORATORY EXERCISE 49 ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Figure Labels Fig. 49.1 1. Lip 5. Palatine tonsil 2. Hard palate 6. Tongue 3. Soft palate 7. Vestibule 4. Uvula FIG. 49.2 1. Parotid gland 5. Tongue 2. Masseter muscle 6. Sublingual gland 3. Submandibular gland 7. Submandibular duct (Wharton's duct) 4. Parotid duct (Stenson's duct) FIG. 49.3 1. Enamel 4. Crown 2. Dentin 5. Gingiva 3. Root 6. Root canal FIG. 49.5 1. Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids) 7. Lingual tonsils 2. Opening of auditory tube (eustachian tube) 8. Epiglottis 3. Nasopharynx 9. Laryngopharynx 4. Oral cavity 10. Esophagus 5. Palatine tonsils 11. Trachea 6. Oropharynx FIG. 49.6 1. Esophagus 6. Pyloric region 2. Cardiac region 7. Lower esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter) 3. Pyloric sphincter 8. Fundic region 4. Duodenum 9. Body region 5. Pyloric canal 10. Rugae FIG. 49.7 4 1 2 3 5 7 6 FIG. 49.9 1. Liver 6. Hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi) 2. Hepatic duct (common) 7. Common bile duct 3. Gallbladder 8. Pancreas 4. Cystic duct 9. Pancreatic duct 5. Duodenum 69 FIG. 49.10 5 8 7 6 2 1 11 4 3 9 10 Critical Thinking Application Answer The small intestine, which is much longer than the large intestine and contains villi, provides more surface area for absorption than the large intestine. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. d 5. j 9. f 13. a 2. m 6. n 10. i 14. c 3. g 7. l 11. o 15. b 4. h 8. k 12. e PART B wall contract pulling the pharynx upward, esophagus is opened, and a peristaltic wave forces food into the esophagus. 1. nasopharynx 2. oropharynx 3. laryngopharynx 4. nasopharynx 5. constrictors 6. Soft palate is raised, hyoid bone and larynx are elevated, tongue is pressed upward against the soft palate, longitudinal muscles of pharyngeal 7. trachea 8. esophageal hiatus 9. Mucus 10. 25 PART C 1. cardiac, fundic, body, and pyloric regions 8. gastrin 2. pyloric sphincter 9. chyme 3. mucous, chief, and parietal cells 10. 4. chief cells 5. parietal cells The stomach receives food from the esophagus, mixes it with gastric juice, initiates the digestion of protein, does limited amount of absorption, and moves food (chyme) into the small intestine. 6. pepsin 7. intrinsic factor PART D 1. d 4. e 7. k 10. h 2. b 5. a 8. c 11. j 3. f 6. g 9. i PART E 1. duodenum, jejunum, ileum 3. lacteal 2. A mesentery supports and suspends organs. It contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves that supply the organs. 4. intestinal glands (crypts of Lieberkühn) 5. peptidases, sucrase, maltase, lactase, lipase, enterokinase (only 5 of 6 needed to answer the question) 70 6. ileocecal sphincter (valve) 7. vermiform appendix 8. The small intestine receives secretions from the pancreas and liver, completes digestion of nutrients, absorbs the products of digestion, and transports the residues to the large intestine. 9. 71 The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes, and forms and stores feces. LABORATORY EXERCISE 50 CAT DISSECTION: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. The major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual) in the human and the cat occupy similar locations. 2. The jaw of the cat has six incisors, two canines, six premolars, and two molars; the jaw of the human has four incisors, two canines, four premolars, and six molars. 3. The cat's canine teeth are adapted for stabbing and holding prey whereas its rear molars are adapted for cutting meat. 4. The uvula is missing in the cat. 5. The transverse ridges help to hold food. 6. Many of the papillae on the cat's tongue have spiny projections that help the cat to clean its fur. These are lacking on the human tongue. PART B 1. The peritoneum is the membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs. Double-layered folds in this membrane form the mesentery that supports the abdominal organs. 2. The inner lining of the stomach is folded to form many ridges called rugae. 3. The cat's liver has five lobes; the human liver has four. 4. The cat's pancreas is relatively smaller than that of the human and it is double-lobed. One lobe lies along the duodenum, and the other extends behind the stomach toward the spleen. 5. The appendix is missing in the cat. 72 LABORATORY EXERCISE 51 ACTION OF A DIGESTIVE ENZYME Instructional Suggestion For this experiment to work, it is very important to obtain amylase that is free of sugar. Most of the amylase sold by laboratory suppliers in 2001 contained sugar, as can be determined by the control in tube 1 of this experiment. Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Inc. does handle amylase (alpha amylase from Bacillus subtilis; catalog #39W0058) that is free of sugar, and several other companies plan to add this product to their catalogs. If in doubt, call the supply company and consult with a person in technical support. Keep any of the unused amylase frozen. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. 2. Expected experimental results: Tube Starch Sugar 1 0 0 2 + 0 3 (varies) + a. Testing the amylase solution for the presence of starch and sugar demonstrates the negative results of the tests. b. Tube 2 demonstrates that starch will not change to sugar when warmed to 37C (98.6F). c. The change of starch to sugar is a result of the action of the amylase in tube 3. PART B 1. 2. Expected experimental results: Tube Starch Sugar 4 + (varies) 5 (varies) + 6 + 0 a. Amylase is slow to act or inactive in low temperature and high temperature. Its optimum temperature is near 37C (98.6 F). b. The tubes in which digestion failed to occur could be placed in the 37C (98.6F) water bath. If digestion occurred at this temperature, the enzyme was not destroyed by the previous treatment. Critical Thinking Application Answer The test would show a positive result for sugar. The experiment would not be valid as it would not show a change from starch to sugar when sugar is already present. (Note: some amylase sold is contaminated with sugar.) 73 LABORATORY EXERCISE 52 ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Figure Labels FIG. 52.1 1. Nostril (external naris) 7. Frontal sinus 2. Oral cavity 8. Nasal cavity 3. Epiglottis 9. Pharynx 4. Larynx 10. Trachea 5. Right primary bronchus 11. Left lung 6. Right lung FIG. 52.2 1. Frontal sinus 8. Superior concha 2. Nostril (external naris) 9. Middle concha 3. Auditory (Eustachian) tube opening 10. Inferior concha 4. Uvula 11. Sphenoidal sinus 5. Palatine tonsil 12. Nasopharynx 6. Epiglottis 13. Oropharynx 7. Trachea 14. Laryngopharynx FIG. 52.3 1. Epiglottis (epiglottic cartilage) 5. Corniculate cartilage 2. Thyroid cartilage 6. Arytenoid cartilage 3. Cricoid cartilage 7. Thyroid cartilage 4. Epiglottis (epiglottic cartilage) 8. Cricoid cartilage FIG. 52.4 1. Epiglottis 3. False vocal cord 2. Glottis 4. True vocal cord Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. h 4. a 7. j 2. b 5. e 8. f 10. c 3. i 6. d 9. g 3. If the smooth muscle of the bronchial tree relaxes, the air passages dilate, which allows a greater volume of air movement. PART B (sketches) PART C 1. The sticky mucus is secreted into the upper and lower respiratory tract, which will trap particles of dust and microorganisms. 2. The cilia create a current of mucus toward the pharynx. The mucus contains entrapped particles that are usually swallowed. 74 Critical Thinking Application Answer The simple squamous epithelial cells allow for rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the alveolar air. 75 LABORATORY EXERCISE 53 CAT DISSECTION: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Laboratory Report Answers 1. The auditory tube allows air to pass between the cavity of the middle ear and the outside environment. As a result, air pressure normally remains equal on both sides of the eardrum. 2. The glottis is the opening at the superior (anterior in cats) end of the larynx. The epiglottis is a flaplike structure that shunts food and liquid away from the glottis during swallowing. 3. The tracheal rings are incomplete as they are in the human. 4. The structure of the primary bronchi and the trachea are similar. 5. The cat has three lobes in each lung. (The third lobe on the right has a fold of mediastinum that is sometimes called a fourth lobe.) The human has three lobes in the right lung and two in the left. 6. The diaphragm is attached to the lower rim of the thorax and to a central tendon. 7. The heart, esophagus, trachea, and thymus gland are found in the mediastinum. These are the same major structures found in the human mediastinum. 76 LABORATORY EXERCISE 54 BREATHING AND RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES Critical Thinking Application Answer Aging results in some natural loss of elasticity of the lungs as well as the muscles (diaphragm and intercostal muscles) used in breathing. This can be measured by a vital capacity test. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. ventilation 8. visceral pleura 2. atmospheric 9. surfactant 3. 760 10. elastic recoil 4. atmospheric pressure 11. less 5. phrenic 12. internal intercostal 6. increases 13. abdominal wall 7. external intercostal PART B 1. a 3. e 5. d 7. c 2. g 4. f 6. h 8. b 3. Answers will vary. PART C 1. (experimental results) 2. a. Answers will vary. b. Answers will vary. c. A measurement of residual volume is needed. 77 LABORATORY EXERCISE 55 CONTROL OF BREATHING Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. pons, medulla oblongata 9. carbon dioxide 2. rhythmicity area of the medulla, pneumotaxic area of pons 10. bicarbonate ions 11. reduced 3. dorsal respiratory 12. carotid bodies, aortic bodies 4. ventral respiratory 13. increases 5. pneumotaxic area 14. stretch 6. medulla oblongata 15. vagus 7. carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions 16. increased 8. increases PART B 1. (experimental results) 2. a. Hyperventilation lowers blood carbon dioxide levels, and the breathing center is stimulated to a lesser degree. b. Air that is rebreathed has a higher concentration of carbon dioxide, and thus the breathing center is stimulated to a greater degree. c. Breath holding causes the blood carbon dioxide concentration to increase, stimulating the breathing center to a greater degree. d. Exercise causes an increase in the breathing rate. This is due in part to the joint reflex and in part to an increasing concentration of blood carbon dioxide. 3. a. It is difficult for a person to breathe normally while thinking about it. b. Depth of breathing can be measured by breathing into an instrument that measures air volumes. Critical Thinking Application Answer A person who has hyperventilated may lose consciousness under water because of changes in the blood carbon dioxide and oxygen levels causing respiratory alkalosis. This is accompanied by arteriole vasoconstriction to the brain, which deprives the brain tissue of oxygen. 78 LABORATORY EXERCISE 56 STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY Figure Labels FIG. 56.1 1. Kidney 3. Urinary bladder 2. Ureter 4. Urethra FIG. 56.2 1. Renal pyramid 6. Minor calyx 2. Renal column 7. Major calyx 3. Renal capsule 8. Renal pelvis 4. Renal medulla 9. Renal papilla 5. Renal cortex 10. Ureter FIG. 56.4 1 Glomerular capsule 7. Afferent arteriole 2. Glomerulus 8. Distal convoluted tubule 3. Proximal convoluted tubule 9. Interlobular vein 4. Descending limb of the nephron loop 10. Collecting duct 5. Ascending limb of the nephron loop 11. Peritubular capillary 6. Efferent arteriole Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. e 6. c 2. a 7. d 3. h 8. g 4. f 9. b 5. i PART B 1. A renal corpuscle is the cluster of capillaries (glomerulus) and the saclike structure (glomerular capsule) that surrounds it; a renal tubule is the coiled tube that leads away from the glomerular capsule and empties into a collecting duct. 2. 3 5 2 4 1 3. 1 3 2 4 5 4. Blood enters the glomerulus through the afferent arteriole and leaves through the efferent arteriole. Because the afferent vessel has a somewhat greater diameter than the efferent one, blood pressure is increased in the glomerulus. 5. The juxtaglomerular apparatus is a structure composed of epithelial cells within the distal convoluted tubule and smooth muscle cells within the walls of arterioles near the glomerulus that regulates the flow of blood through certain renal blood vessels. PART C (sketch) PART D (sketch) 79 6 LABORATORY EXERCISE 57 URINALYSIS Instructional Suggestion Because most students’ urine will produce negative results for glucose, protein, ketones, bilirubin, and hemoglobin, you may want to provide samples of “artificial urine” (distilled water that contains weak concentrations of some of these substances). By performing the urinalysis tests on such samples, students will be able to obtain some positive results. Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. (test results) 2. Answers will vary. Critical Thinking Application Answer If urine is not refrigerated, substances within it will begin to change as a result of bacterial action, and the composition of the urine will be altered. PART B 1. (sketch) 2. Answers will vary. 80 LABORATORY EXERCISE 58 CAT DISSECTION: URINARY SYSTEM Laboratory Report Answers 1. In the human, the kidneys are located between the levels of the twelfth thoracic and the third lumbar vertebrae; in the cat, the kidneys are found at the level of the third to the fifth lumbar vertebrae. In the human, the left kidney is usually higher than the right one; in the cat, the right kidney is usually somewhat anterior to the left one. In both cases, the kidneys are retroperitoneal. 2. In the human, the adrenal glands are located on the superior ends of the kidneys; in the cat, the adrenal glands are located anteriorly and medially to the kidneys. 3. In the cat, the kidneys, ureters, and urinary bladder are retroperitoneal. 4. The wall of the urinary bladder is relatively thick, tough, and somewhat elastic. Its inner surface is irregular. 5. In the human kidney, there are about twelve renal pyramids that communicate with the renal pelvis by calyces. Each calyx bears one or more papillae. In the cat kidney, there is a single pyramid and one papilla. 81 LABORATORY EXERCISE 59 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Figure Labels FIG. 59.1 1. Vas deferens 7. Ejaculatory duct 2. Urethra 8. Prostate gland 3. Penis 9. Bulbourethral gland 4. Glans penis 10. Epididymis 5. Prepuce 11. Testis 6. Seminal vesicle 12. Scrotum FIG. 59.2 1 7 5 2 4 6 3 Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. spermatic cord 11. acrosome 2. testosterone 12. epididymis 3. gubernaculum 13. fructose 4. inguinal canal 14. alkaline 5. lobules 15. bulbourethral 6. epididymis 16. alkaline 7. spermatogenic 17. scrotum 8. meiosis (spermatogenesis) 18. glans penis 9. spermatids 19. emission 10. 23 20. ejaculation PART B 1. (sketch) 2. (sketch) 3. (sketch) 4. a. Sustentacular cells support, nourish, and regulate the spermatogenic cells. b. Spermatogenic cells give rise to sperm cells by meiosis (spermatogenesis). c. Interstitial cells produce and secrete male sex hormones. d. The epididymis stores sperm cells while they mature and propels them into the vas deferens. e. The corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum form three columns of erectile tissue that contain vascular spaces (sinuses) that become engorged with blood during an erection. They also form most of the body of the penis. 82 LABORATORY EXERCISE 60 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Figure Labels FIG. 60.1 1. Suspensory ligament of ovary 5. Fimbriae of uterine tube 2. Uterine tube 6. Broad ligament 3. Ovarian ligament 7. Left ovary 4. Round ligament of uterus 8. Uterus FIG. 60.2 1. Uterine tube 6. Labium majus 2. Ovary 7. Vaginal orifice 3. Uterus 8. Fimbriae of uterine tube 4. Clitoris 9. Cervix 5. Labium minus 10. Vagina FIG. 60.3 1. Clitoris 6. Labium minus 2. External urethral orifice (meatus) 7. Vestibular bulb 3. Vaginal orifice/vestibule 8. Perineum 4. Mons pubis 9. Anus 5. Labium majus FIG. 60.4 5 8 10 1 9 2 4 7 3 6 Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. pelvic 11. round 2. broad 12. cervix 3. ovarian follicles 13. endometrium 4. oogenesis 14. smooth muscle 5. follicular 15. hymen 6. first polar body 16. vulva 7. FSH 17. mons pubis 8. ovulation 18. clitoris 9. fallopian tubes or oviducts 19. vestibular glands 10. infundibulum 20. sacral and lumbar 83 PART B 1. (sketch) 2. (sketch) 3. (sketch) 4. (sketch) 5. a. A mature follicle swells and ruptures under the influence of certain hormones. As this happens, the secondary oocyte (egg cell) and follicular fluid escape from the ovary. b. The cilia that line the uterine tube beat toward the uterus and help draw the secondary oocyte into the infundibulum of the tube and continue to move it toward the uterus. c. The uterine lining thickens and then it becomes glandular and vascular. If fertilization does not occur, the lining disintegrates and sloughs away, creating the menstrual flow. 84 LABORATORY EXERCISE 61 CAT DISSECTION: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. The cat uterine tubes are small, coiled tubes near the ovaries that travel relatively short distances to join the uterine horns. The human uterine tubes are much larger and longer, traveling from the region of the ovaries to the uterine body. 2. The human uterus contains a single chamber in which the offspring develop. The cat uterus is Y-shaped with branches, forming right and left uterine horns. 3. The uterine horns of the cat provide room for many offspring to develop at one time. 4. In the cat, the vagina and urethra open into a common urogenital sinus; in the human each of these organs has a separate opening to the outside. PART B 1. The glans of the cat has small spines on its surface, whereas that of the human does not. 2. In the cat, the prostate gland is relatively small and is located some distance from the urinary bladder (it does not surround the urethra). In the human, the prostate gland is relatively larger and surrounds the urethra near the base of the bladder. 3. The seminal vesicles are lacking in the cat. 4. The prepuce of the cat encloses the entire penis for protection. In the human, the prepuce or foreskin is vestigial and only covers the glans of the penis. A circumcision is commonly performed on humans to remove the prepuce for sanitation and other reasons. 85 LABORATORY EXERCISE 62 FERTILIZATION AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT Instructional Suggestions Sea urchin egg and sperm suspensions can be obtained from ripe sea urchins. The “Sea Urchin Embryology Kit” from Carolina Biological Supply Company is one source of these materials. Figure Labels FIG. 62.1 1. First polar body 2. Secondary oocyte 3. Sperm cells 5. Morula 4. 2-cell stage 6. Blastocyst FIG. 62.2 1. Chorion 4. Endoderm 6. Amnion 8. Connecting stalk 2. Ectoderm 5. Yolk sac 7. Amniotic cavity 9. Chorionic villi 3. Mesoderm 3. Amniochorionic membrane 10. fetus 10. d FIG. 62.3 1. Umbilical cord 2. Amniotic fluid Laboratory Report Answers PART A 1. oocyte (egg cell) 4. mitosis 7. three 2. acrosome 5. cleavage 8. blastocyst 3. zygote 6. cilia 9. embryo PART B (sketches) PART C (sketches) PART D 1. h 4. a 7. e 2. f 5. j 8. b 3. g 6. i 9. c PART E 1. placental membrane 6. yolk sac 2. amnion 7. allantois 3. umbilical arteries 8. eighth 4. amniochorionic membrane 9. embryonic 5. yolk sac 10. amniotic 86