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America: Pathways to the Present Chapter 8 The Growth of a National Economy (1790–1850) Copyright © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. All rights reserved. America: Pathways to the Present Chapter 8: The Growth of a National Economy (1790–1850) Section 1: Inventions and Innovations Section 2: The Northern Section Section 3: The Southern Section Section 4: The Growth of Nationalism Section 5: The Age of Jackson Copyright © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. All rights reserved. The Market Revolution • “Americans in the first half of the 19th century were fond of describing liberty as the defining quality of their new nation…In Democracy in America, the French historian and politician Alexis de Tocqueville wrote of the ‘holy cult of freedom’ he encountered on his own visit to the US during the early 1830s.” The Market Revolution “Even as [the Marquis de] Lafayette, Tocqueville, and numerous other visitors from abroad toured the US, however, Americans’ understandings of freedom were changing. Three historical processes unleashed by the Revolution accelerated after the War of 1812: the spread of market relations, the westward movement of the population, and the rise of a vigorous political democracy. All powerfully affected the development of American society. They also helped to reshape the idea of freedom, identifying it more closely with economic opportunity, physical mobility, and participation in a vibrantly democratic political system.” (GML, p.303) The Market Revolution and the Spread of Liberty and Slavery “But, American freedom also continued to be shaped by the presence of slavery…slavery was moving westward with the young republic…And slavery drew a strict racial boundary around American democracy, making voting, office holding, and participation in the public sphere privileges for whites alone…Half a century after the winning of independence, the coexistence of liberty and slavery, and their simultaneous expansion, remained the central contradiction of American life.” (GML, p.303) The Market Revolution and the Spread of Liberty and Slavery • Ultimately Americans would clash because they couldn’t live in a country divided by slavery. But it wouldn’t be the morality of slavery, so much as political and economic differences that expanded as the nation also expanded west. Inventions and Innovations How did the Industrial Revolution begin and spread in the United States, and what was its impact? How did improvements in transportation and communication change American society? How did the U.S. economy expand during the early 1800s? What role did banks have in the growth of the U.S. economy? Chapter 8, Section 1 The Industrial Revolution • “In the first half of the 19th century, an economic transformation known as the market revolution swept over the USA. Its catalyst was a series of innovations in transportation and communication.” (GML, p.304) • The market revolution represented the ongoing, and dramatic change in the way Americans made, bought, and sold goods. • “The market revolution represented an acceleration of developments already under way in the colonial era.” (p.305) The Industrial Revolution: Innovation in Transportation Chapter 8, Section 1 • “In the first half of the 19th century, in rapid succession, the steamboat, canal, railroad, and telegraph wrenched America out of its economic past. These innovations opened new land to settlement, lowered transportation costs, and made it far easier for economic enterprises to sell their products. They linked farmers to national and international markets and made them major consumers of manufactured goods.” (p.306) Chapter 8, Section 1 The Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was an ongoing effort over many decades to increase production by using machines rather than the power of humans or animals. The industrial revolution, which had begun in England, spread to America with the introduction of the factory system in New England, and occurred hand-in-hand with the market revolution. • The Industrial Revolution began with improvements in the textile industry in Britain in the 1700s. James Watt’s development of the first practical steam engine between 1765 and 1785 led the way to more powerful steam engines in the years to come. Chapter 8, Section 1 The Industrial Revolution • Although the British jealously guarded their inventions, Samuel Slater was able to immigrate to America and reproduce British machinery there. • Textile producers soon began copying Slater’s methods. Hundreds of textile mills arose, mostly in New England, Pennsylvania, and New York. Samuel Slater: Father of the American Industrial Revolution What were the causes of Industrialization? Besides new technological developments, other factors led to the development of industry first in New England. Industrialization was brought about by the Embargo of 1807, which induced merchants barred from foreign trade to divert their capital to founding factories. (“Thanks a lot, Mr. Jefferson!”) What were the causes of Industrialization? • After the War of 1812 fledgling industries received protection from high tariffs, especially in the 1820s. • New England was the first region to industrialize because its merchants were particularly hard hit by foreign trade disruptions and it had swiftflowing rivers for water power and excess female farm population for labor. What were the causes of Industrialization? • Transportation improvements opened to manufacturers distant markets. • Relatively high wages paid to American workers also made employers eager to adopt labor-saving techniques like Eli Whitney’s interchangeable parts and adopt new technology. Chapter 8, Section 1 Eli Whitney’s Inventions Interchangeable Parts The Cotton Gin • • • New England inventor Eli Whitney implemented the idea of manufacturing interchangeable parts, in which all parts needed to make a product are made to an exact standard. Whitney used his idea to manufacture guns. Other inventors later perfected the strategy, bringing the concept of interchangeable parts to other industries. • • • Whitney also devised the cotton gin, a machine that separates the seeds from raw cotton. In 1794, Whitney gained a patent on the cotton gin, a license from the government giving him the sole right to make, use, and sell an invention for a period of time. The cotton gin increased the amount of cotton that farmers could produce, with many far-ranging effects. Farmers sought new land to farm as well as more enslaved Africans to work on these lands. Increased demand for southern cotton kept New England textile mills busy. • The cotton gin is also an indirect cause of the Civil War. Transportation and Communication Improvements in Transportation and Communication Early- to Mid- 1800s Roads Roads were needed for travel as well as to transport goods, deliver the mail, and herd animals. Although many roads were poorly built or built by private companies, the Cumberland Road, today known as U.S. Route 40, was built to last by the federal government. River Travel Rivers provided the country’s main transportation. Robert Fulton’s development of a commercially successful steamboat soon led to hundreds of steamboats transporting goods up and down American rivers such as the Mississippi. Canals Since water was the cheapest way to transport goods, American innovators built artificial waterways, or canals. The Erie Canal increased the settlement and development of the Great Lakes region. Railroads Railroads, using the new steam locomotive, became even more efficient than canals. The first American railroad, known as the Baltimore and Ohio (B&O) line, was followed by thousands more miles of rail track. Communication Improvements in the federal postal service, combined with an increasing number of newspapers and magazines, provided a national network of information exchange which helped tie together different parts of the country. An Expanding Economy • • • • During the 1800s, the ways in which Americans made, bought, and sold goods changed dramatically. This change became known as the Market Revolution. Many businesspeople began turning to manufacturing, the use of machinery to make products. Manufacturing began in New England and spread across the Northeast and into parts of the Northwest Territory. In 1814, Francis Cabot Lowell led a group of businessmen in building the first truly centralized textile factory, a single facility where all the tasks involved in making a product were carried out. Manufacturing and other features of the Market Revolution took place within the free enterprise system, an economic system in which private companies compete for profits. Chapter 8, Section 1 Working and Shopping Working Outside the Home • In the 1700s, most people worked in their homes or on farms. • The rise of manufacturing sharply increased the demand for people working outside the home. • Factory owners increased the use of specialization, a system in which each worker performs just one part of the production process. • Rather than working on a product from start to finish, many workers were now involved only in one part of the process. The Rise of Shopping • As more products became available and people worked for wages, Americans began to shop for goods rather than make what they needed for themselves. • By the mid-1800s, many average American homes were filled with store-bought items. Artisans and Workers in Mid-Atlantic Cities • In NYC and Philadelphia manufacturing of products such as shoes, saddles, or clothing was done in small shops as well as factories. Much of the work was still done by hand rather than by machine, but increasingly production was subdivided into small, specialized tasks performed by low-paid, semiskilled or unskilled laborers, often women. This resulted in a declining importance for skilled artisans, who, in protest in the late 1820s, formed trade unions and “workingmen’s” political parties. The Industrial Worker • “The market revolution helped change Americans’ conception of time itself. Farm life continued to be regulated by the rhythms of the seasons. But in cities, clocks became part of daily life, and work time and leisure time came to be clearly marked off from one another…As the market revolution accelerated, work in factories, workshops, and even for servants in Americans’ homes, took place for a specified number of hours per day…In the nineteenth century, pay increasingly became a ‘wage’ paid according to an hourly or daily rate.” The Industrial Worker • “Closely supervised work tending a machine for a period determined by a clock seemed to violate the independence Americans considered an essential element of freedom. Consequently, few native-born men could be attracted to work in the early factories.” (GML, pgs.317-318) The “Mill Girls” • In 1813, Francis Cabot Lowell built the first centralized textile mill in Waltham, Massachusetts. A mill town founded in northern Massachusetts was later named for him. • The Lowell mills employed young, unmarried women, providing them with an income, room and board, and the opportunity to socialize with other young women. • Because women would work for lower wages than men, many mill owners chose to hire female workers (as well as children). The “Mill Girls” • “They typically remained in the factories for only a few years, after which they left to return home, marry, or move west. The shortage of industrial labor continued, easing only when large-scale immigration began in the 1840s and 1850s.” (GML, p.319) • “By the end of the 1850s, the Lowell textile mills had largely replaced Yankee farm women with immigrant Irish families (who had fled the Great Potato Famine of 1845-1851). (GML, p.320) Lowell Mill Girls Children workers End of the Lowell Mill Girls • The 1820s and 1830s have been called Lowell's Golden Age: the time of New England mill girls, relatively unpressured working conditions, closely supervised boardinghouses, and The Lowell Offering. The 1840s saw a " speed up" and "stretch out" in the mills, with the machines run faster and each worker given more machines to tend, to make up for falling profits. The Yankee mill girls began to leave, replaced by Irish immigrants with no better options. • The Civil War meant the end of Lowell as an industrial experiment, for the owners, thinking the war would last only months, mistakenly sold off their cotton to make a quick profit. When the mills reopened after the war, the "Lowell experiment" was over: the Yankee work force was gone, replaced with immigrant workers. Lower wages and sped-up machinery indicated a search only for profit, not for a moral workplace. Eric Foner writes that a "market revolution" occurred in the early decades of the nineteenth century. What did he mean by that, and what was its significance? How inclusive was the market revolution? • Historians refer to a series of economic changes that took place between, let's say, 1800 and 1840 or so as the "market revolution." This includes many things: it includes great improvements in transportation, the steamboat, the building of canals, eventually the railroad, which made possible the much more rapid transportation of goods throughout the country. It also refers to a shift in economic activity where more and more farmers and city craftsmen were producing goods for the market rather than for their own subsistence. Eric Foner writes that a "market revolution" occurred in the early decades of the nineteenth century. What did he mean by that, and what was its significance? How inclusive was the market revolution? • In 1800 most American farmers basically grew foods for their own families. Those near cities or rivers would sell their goods, and of course the southern plantations were selling goods to Europe, but the small farmers were basically growing foods for their own family. • By 1840 the large majority of them were producing goods for the marketplace. Now, as they did that their lives changed. There were no longer crafts that used to exist at home; now you bought those things from stores, and factories began to produce things like woven cloth, which used to be made at home. Eric Foner writes that a "market revolution" occurred in the early decades of the nineteenth century. What did he mean by that, and what was its significance? How inclusive was the market revolution? • So, everybody was affected by the rise of market relations. Some men gained greater independence by working in the market; some of them lost their economic independence. They had to go work in factories, where they worked under the economic dictation of someone else. • As for women…. Eric Foner writes…? • Women's work changed. No longer were women producing essential goods in the home. They were still working, of course, very hard, but they were not manufacturing goods in the home for the family. Some women went out to work in the new factories (ex. “Lowell Girls”). So the market revolution really changed the nature of economic life for just about all Americans. Chapter 8, Section 1 The Role of Banks The Rise of the Banking Industry Uncontrolled Lending and Bank Notes • By the 1830s, hundreds of new banks had opened in the United States. • Banks made money by charging interest on the loans they provided. Many of these loans were in the form of investment capital, money that a business spends in hopes of future gains. • Although investment capital generally helped the economy grow, disasters could and did occur. • In the 1800s, states did not restrict banks’ lending. Banks often made loans to people who could not pay them back. • As a result, banks sometimes did not have enough cash on hand if a large number of people tried to withdraw their money at the same time. • The economy experienced wild booms followed by panics. Panics in the 1830s disrupted the economy well into the 1840s. The Transformation of Law • “American law increasingly supported the efforts of entrepreneurs to participate in the market revolution, while shielding them from interference by local governments and liability for some of the less desirable results of economic growth. The corporate from of business organization became central to the new market economy.” • “A corporate firm enjoys special privileges and powers granted in a charter from the government, among them that investors and directors are not personally liable for the company’s debts…” The Transformation of Law • American law in this period increasingly supported the efforts of entrepreneurs to participate in the market revolution, while protecting them from local governments and liability that might interfere with their activities. The corporate form of business organization, in which a corporate firm receives a charter from the government and stockholders are not individually liable for company debts, became central to economic life in this period. The Transformation of Law • Corporations found reinforcement in John Marshall’s Supreme Court’s decisions that validated their legal status. Local courts found businesses blameless for property damage and held that employers had full authority in the workplace, even convicting workers who joined unions or went on strike based on old conspiracy laws. The West and Freedom • By the 1830s and 1840s, the market revolution and westward expansion had profoundly affected all Americans’ lives, reinforcing older ideas of freedom and creating new ones. American freedom had long been linked with available land in the West. In this period was coined the phrase “manifest destiny,” referring to the divine mission of the United States to occupy all of North America and extend freedom, despite any costs to peoples and nations already there. But an old idea connecting freedom and a divine mission to move west and settle land had its origins in colonial times. The West and Freedom • In national myth and ideology, the West would long remain a sanctuary for the free American. To many, the settlement and exploitation of the West offered America a chance to avoid becoming like Europe, where society was marked by fixed social classes and large numbers of wage-earning poor. In the West, free or cheap land was abundant and factory labor less common. The West seemed to offer men facing wage labor and rising land prices in the east an opportunity to gain economic independence—the social condition of freedom. The Free Individual • The energetic, competitive world of the market revolution led many Americans to identify freedom with the absence of restraints on self-directed individuals who sought economic advancement and personal development. Opportunities for personal growth presented a new definition of Jefferson’s pursuit of happiness that well fitted a new America in which westward expansion and market relations shattered old spatial and social boundaries. The Transcendentalists • A group of New England intellectuals, called the transcendentalists, reflected this national mood in their writings and activities. Together they insisted that individual judgment should take precedence over existing social traditions and institutions. Ralph Waldo Emerson defined freedom as an open-ended process of self-realization, in which individuals could remake themselves and their own lives. Henry David Thoreau called for individuals to rely on themselves. The Free Individual • In this era the term individualism was first used. Unlike in the colonial period, many Americans now believed individuals should pursue their own self-interest, no matter what the cost to the public good, and that they should and could depend only on themselves. Americans more and more saw the realm of the private self as one in which other individuals and government should not interfere. The Second Great Awakening • The popular religious revivals that swept over the nation during the Second Great Awakening added a religious dimension to the celebration of self-improvement, selfreliance, and self-determination. These revivals were first organized by established religious leaders worried about low levels of church attendance, but reached their height in the 1820s and 1830s, when the Reverend Charles Grandison Finney held revivals in New York. Like evangelists in the eighteenth century, Finney enthusiastically warned his audience of hell, and promised them salvation if they would end their sinful habits. The Second Great Awakening • Evangelical preachers rejected the idea that man was naturally sinful and preordained to heaven or hell, and instead argued that humans had free will to live in sin or reach heaven by doing “good works.” (This call to do good works also helped bring about an era of reform.) The (Second Great) Awakening’s Impact • The Second Great Awakening democratized American Christianity and made it a mass enterprise. Religious devotion and attendance boomed, and smaller evangelical sects such as the Methodists and Baptists grew rapidly. Christianity became central to American culture. The evangelicals stressed the right of private judgment in spiritual affairs and the possibility of universal salvation through faith and good deeds. Evangelicals used the opportunities to travel and spread their message which had been made available by the market revolution, and their mass religion and idea that ordinary Americans could forge their own spiritual destinies resonated with the spread of market values. The Awakening’s Impact • While evangelicals criticized selfishness, greed, and indifference to the welfare of others, the revivals flourished in areas transformed by the market revolution. Evangelical ministers promoted a controlled individualism, marked by industry, sobriety, and self-discipline as the essence of freedom. Liberty and Prosperity • With the market revolution, the right to compete for economic advancement became essential to American freedom. Symbols of liberty were bound up with symbols of prosperity. The stories of men like John Jacob Astor, the son of a poor German immigrant who became the richest man in America by using money earned from shipping to invest in Manhattan real estate, seemed to embody opportunities open to the “self-made man.” This success was achieved not through hereditary privilege or government favoritism, as in Europe, but through hard work and intelligence. Liberty and Prosperity • The market revolution and expanding commercial life enriched bankers, merchants, industrialists, and planters and produced a new middle class of clerks, accountants, and other professionals, such as teachers, doctors, and lawyers. • Limits of Prosperity: Race and (Lack of ) Opportunity • Not everyone benefited from the market revolution. Most African-Americans were slaves, but even free blacks were excluded from economic opportunities. Free blacks in northern states experienced discrimination in every sphere of life. They were segregated into the poorest and most unhealthy areas of cities like New York, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati, and were subjected to assaults in riots by white mobs. They were barred from schools and other public facilities, and created their own institutional life of schools and churches, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church (founded by Richard Allen in Philadelphia). Limits of Prosperity • Many blacks experienced downward economic mobility, being unable to practice their craft skills because of discrimination by white employers and workers, and were relegated to the most unskilled and menial low-paid labor. Blacks also could not take advantage of the opening of the West, either, since federal law barred blacks from accessing public land, and some western states prohibited them from even entering their territory. • The Cult of Domesticity • Many opportunities created by the market revolution were also closed to women. As the household declined as a site of economic production, women’s traditional roles were undermined by mass produced goods once made at home. Some women entered factories, while others embraced a new definition of femininity centered in women’s ability to create a private sphere in the home removed from the competitive tensions of the market economy. Here her role was not to produce things but to sustain non-market values such as love, friendship, and mutual obligation, providing men with a shelter from the rigors of the market. • The Cult of Domesticity • Earlier ideas of “republican motherhood” were replaced by this “cult of domesticity.” Virtue came to be defined as a personal quality associated with women, who were expected to be sexually innocent, beautiful, frail, and dependent on men. The cult of domesticity minimized even women’s indirect participation in public life, viewing women as nurturing, selfless, and ruled by emotions, while seeing men as rational, aggressive, and domineering. While men could move freely between the public and private spheres, women were to remain confined within the private family. Women and Work • But the cult of domesticity did not capture the realities of life for the many women who worked for wages at least part of their lives (ex. “Lowell Girls”). Women who worked outside of the home could not compete freely for jobs, since only low-paid jobs were open to them, and married women could not sign their own contracts or, until after the Civil War, keep their wages, which went to their husbands. Many poor women worked as domestic servants, factory workers, and seamstresses. Women and Work • For the middle class, however, respectability was earned in part by keeping wives and children at home and hiring women to do household work in middle-class homes, which were segregated in neighborhoods distant from other classes. Even working-class men adopted these values and protested that capitalism was ripping women from the home and subjecting them to exploitation and abuse in the marketplace. • The Early Labor Movement • “…Although many Americans welcomed the market revolution, others felt threatened by its consequences. Surviving member of the revolutionary generation feared that the obsession with personal economic gain was undermining devotion to the public good…” • “Many Americans experienced the market revolution not as an enhancement of the power to shape their own lives, but as a loss of freedom. For every aspiring American who rode the tide of economic progress, another seemed to sink beneath the waves.” The Early Labor Movement and Growing Inequality • “The economic transformation produced an explosive growth in the nation’s output and trade and a rise in the general standard of living. But especially in the growing cities of the Northeast, it significantly widened the gap between wealthy merchants and industrialists on the one hand, and impoverished factory workers, unskilled dockworkers, and seamstresses laboring at home on the other.” Growing Inequality • “In Massachusetts…the richest 5% of the population owned over half the wealth. Inequality was even more pronounced in Philadelphia, where the top 1% possessed more wealth than the rest of the population combined. Bankruptcy was a common fact of life…” (GML, p.335) The Early Labor Movement • Contrary to the rags to riches myth, 90% of the very wealthy had started out with considerable means. At the other end of the scale, cities were developing a pauperized class consisting of the aged and infirmed; widows; destitute Irish immigrants, and free blacks who suffered the worst forms of discrimination.(The Enduring Vision) The Early Labor Movement • “Alarmed at the erosion of traditional skills and the threat of being reduced to the status of dependent wage earners, skilled craftsmen in the late 1820s created the world’s first Workingmen Parties, short-lived political organizations that sought to mobilize lower-class support for candidates who would press for free public education, and end to imprisonment for debt, and legislation limiting work to a ten hour day…union organization spread and strikes became commonplace.” (GML, pgs.335-36) Workers Organize Workers Go on Strike • Factory owners aimed to make a profit, often at the expense of their workers. • Workers often used the strike, or work stoppage, to demand shorter hours and higher wages. • From 1834 through 1836, more than 150 strikes took place in the United States. The First Labor Unions • In 1834, workers organized the first national labor union, an organization of workers formed to protect the interests of its members. • This union, the National Trades Union (NTU), died out when factory owners obtained court rulings that outlawed labor organizations. • The early labor movement demonstrated that workers were willing to take action against their employers, setting the stage for later labor movements. Inventions and Innovations— Assessment Chapter 8, Section 1 Which of the following was an effect of the invention of the cotton gin? (A) Banks began lending investment capital to businesspeople. (B) More Americans began working outside the home. (C) Centralized textile mills became common in the North. (D) More slaves were brought to cotton plantations. What was the Market Revolution? (A) An effort to increase production by using machines (B) The new means of transporting goods by steamboat and rail (C) A change in the ways Americans made, bought, and sold goods (D) The opening of hundreds of new banks Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Inventions and Innovations— Assessment Chapter 8, Section 1 Which of the following was an effect of the invention of the cotton gin? (A) Banks began lending investment capital to businesspeople. (B) More Americans began working outside the home. (C) Centralized textile mills became common in the North. (D) More slaves were brought to cotton plantations. What was the Market Revolution? (A) An effort to increase production by using machines (B) The new means of transporting goods by steamboat and rail (C) A change in the ways Americans made, bought, and sold goods (D) The opening of hundreds of new banks Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Chapter 8, Section 2 The Northern Section • How did farming develop in the Old Northwest? • What new industries arose in the Northeast? • What caused the growth of cities, and what problems developed as they grew? • What kinds of labor disputes arose in factories? Farming in the Old Northwest Chapter 8, Section 2 • In the early 1800s, America began to divide into two distinct sections, or regions, the North and the South. • One part of the North became known as the Old Northwest and included present-day Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. • Fertile land in the Old Northwest proved ideal for growing corn, wheat, and other grains. Because these grains spoiled easily, they were often converted into other products, such as beer and whiskey, which did not spoil and were easy to store. • Many specialized businesses arose to handle the processing, transport, and sale of farm products produced in the Old Northwest. These included slaughterhouses, distilleries, shipping companies, and banks. Industries of the Northeast Chapter 8, Section 2 • Most people in the Northeast continued to live in rural areas in the countryside. Others lived and worked in urban areas, or cities. • Industrialization, or the development of industry, increased rapidly in the Northeast. • In 1813, Francis Cabot Lowell built the first centralized textile mill in Waltham, Massachusetts. A mill town founded in northern Massachusetts was later named for him. • The Lowell mills employed young, unmarried women, providing them with an income, room and board, and the opportunity to socialize with other young women. • Because women would work for lower wages than men, many mill owners chose to hire female workers. Chapter 8, Section 2 The Growth of Cities The Growth of Cities • Many young people sought work in the cities, as the American population outgrew the available farmland. • Population in large cities such as New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia skyrocketed. Smaller cities such as Baltimore also saw a dramatic rise in population. Urban Problems • In these growing cities, children, the sick, and the elderly often had no support in times of trouble. • Areas such as lower Manhattan became known for their tenements, crowded apartments with poor standards of sanitation, safety, and comfort. • Police and fire departments, sewage systems, and reliable fresh water did not develop as quickly as population in many cities, leading to unsanitary and unsafe conditions. Labor Disputes in Factories Chapter 8, Section 2 Workers Go on Strike • Factory owners aimed to make a profit, often at the expense of their workers. • Workers often used the strike, or work stoppage, to demand shorter hours and higher wages. • From 1834 through 1836, more than 150 strikes took place in the United States. The First Labor Unions • In 1834, workers organized the first national labor union, an organization of workers formed to protect the interests of its members. • This union, the National Trades Union (NTU), died out when factory owners obtained court rulings that outlawed labor organizations. • The early labor movement demonstrated that workers were willing to take action against their employers, setting the stage for later labor movements. Chapter 8, Section 2 The North By the 1840s • By the 1840s, the North’s economy had become a booming mix of industry and agriculture. • Cities and towns characterized the North, bringing the benefits and problems that accompanied growth. The Northern Section—Assessment Chapter 8, Section 2 Why did many mill owners prefer to hire women workers? (A) Men would be more likely to strike for better conditions. (B) Most men had moved to the Old Northwest. (C) Women were traditionally responsible for textile work. (D) Women would work for lower wages than men. What purpose did labor unions serve? (A) They helped young people find jobs in cities. (B) They helped workers protect their own interests. (C) They helped spread industrialization to the Old Northwest. (D) They solved problems associated with urban growth. Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! The Northern Section—Assessment Chapter 8, Section 2 Why did many mill owners prefer to hire women workers? (A) Men would be more likely to strike for better conditions. (B) Most men had moved to the Old Northwest. (C) Women were traditionally responsible for textile work. (D) Women would work for lower wages than men. What purpose did labor unions serve? (A) They helped young people find jobs in cities. (B) They helped workers protect their own interests. (C) They helped spread industrialization to the Old Northwest. (D) They solved problems associated with urban growth. Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Chapter 8, Section 3 The Southern Section • Why did the economy of the South remain largely agricultural? • How did the lives of slaves differ on large and small farms? • What were the results of slave revolts? The Economy of the South Chapter 8, Section 3 “Since cotton was produced solely for sale in national and international markets, the South was in some ways the most commercially oriented region of the USA. Yet rather than spurring economic change, the South’s expansion westward simply reproduced the same agrarian, slave-based social order of the older states…” (GML, p.314) • The region known as the South included 6 of the original 13 states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia as well as the new states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas. The Economy of the South Chapter 8, Section 3 • States in the cotton belt, a band stretching from South Carolina to Texas, relied mostly on cotton for their economies. By 1850 nearly ¾ of the world’s cotton was produced in the American South. • The South was geographically well-suited to farming cotton and other crops. Land was fertile, rain was plentiful, and most of the year was frostfree. • Both large plantations and smaller farms used enslaved workers to help produce cotton, sugar, tobacco, and rice. The Social Groups of the White South In 1850 only about 1/3 of white southerners owned slaves. By 1860 only ¼ of whites southerners owned slaves. The whites of the Old South fit into four classes (although there was considerable variation within each category): 1. planters- owners of 20 or more slaves 2. small slaveholders- 1-20 slaves (In 1860, 88% of the slaveholders held fewer than 20 slaves) 3. yeomen- non-slaveholding small family farmers (by far the largest group) 4. people of the pine barrens (about 10%) Chapter 8, Section 3 Slow Urban Growth Industrial development progressed slowly in the South. Nevertheless, cities did develop, including New Orleans, Louisiana; Charleston, South Carolina; and Richmond, Virginia. Southern cities had smaller populations than their northern counterparts. Like northern cities, southern cities were plagued by problems of poor housing and sanitation. Many free African Americans made their homes in southern towns and cities. Chapter 8, Section 3 The Slavery System Growth in Enslaved Population • By 1804, all northern states had either banned slavery or passed laws to end it gradually. • In 1808, Congress banned all future importation of slaves to the United States. • Nonetheless, the enslaved population grew, since children born to enslaved persons became enslaved as well. Slavery on Small and Large Farms • Slaves on small farms were often better treated than those on large plantations. • Enslaved women faced many responsibilities, including caring for their owners’ households and working in the fields. In addition, some women were subjected to physical or sexual abuse. Why did the vast majority of white non-slaveholding southerners support slavery? By 1850 a little less than 1 out of 3 southern whites owned slaves (and most of them only a few) and by 1860 this number was down to only 1 out of 4. Yet most whites strongly supported slavery. WHY? Some hoped to become slaveholders. They feared freedmen would demand social and political equality with whites. Southern whites shared racist beliefs about blacks and feared that emancipation would be followed by a race war, which would endanger the lives of whites. Chapter 8, Section 3 Slave Revolts Vesey’s Plan • After buying his freedom, former slave Denmark Vesey became increasingly angry at the sufferings of his fellow African Americans. • In 1822, Vesey laid plans for what was to be the most ambitious slave revolt in American history. • Vesey was betrayed by some of his followers, and he and 35 other African Americans were hanged. Turner’s Rebellion • Nat Turner, an African American preacher, planned and carried out a violent uprising in August 1831 known as Turner’s Rebellion. • Local militia captured and hanged many of the rebels, including Turner. • Crowds of frightened and angry whites rioted, killing about a hundred African Americans who had not been involved in the revolt. White Southerners Alarmed Chapter 8, Section 3 Because African Americans outnumbered the white population in some communities, many southerners feared slave revolts. After the Vesey and Turner rebellions, some southern states tightened restrictions on slaves. Virginia and South Carolina passed laws against teaching enslaved people to read, and some states prevented blacks from moving freely or meeting. The same year Turner led his revolt, William Lloyd Garrison began publishing his anti-slavery newspaper The Liberator. The Proslavery Argument The proslavery argument was used as a tool to unite southern whites behind the institution. The argument, which was constructed by southern intellectuals between 1830 and 1860, claimed that slavery was a positive good rather than a necessary evil. It claimed that slavery was sanctioned by history and Christian-Judeo religion and that southern slaves were better treated than northern factory “wage slaves.” By the 1830s most southern churches had adopted the proslavery position. The Proslavery Argument In addition to persuading themselves of the righteousness of their “peculiar institution,” southerners increasingly suppressed all public criticism of slavery. They seized abolitionist literature mailed to the South, smashed the presses of southern anti-slavery newspapers, and mobbed anyone who dared to question slavery. A “gag rule” was also instituted in the House of Representatives banning any discussion of “the peculiar institution.” The Southern Section—Assessment Chapter 8, Section 3 Which of these factors contributed to slow urban growth in the South? (A) Poor housing and sanitation slowed industrialization. (B) Slave revolts drew attention away from urban areas. (C) The southern economy relied on agriculture, not industry. (D) Urban populations were not racially diverse. What caused the number of enslaved people to increase during the early 1800s? (A) Southern industry required slave labor. (B) Enslaved people had children who also became enslaved. (C) Importation of slaves rose. (D) Plantation owners wanted more slaves to help grow cotton. Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! The Southern Section—Assessment Chapter 8, Section 3 Which of these factors contributed to slow urban growth in the South? (A) Poor housing and sanitation slowed industrialization. (B) Slave revolts drew attention away from urban areas. (C) The southern economy relied on agriculture, not industry. (D) Urban populations were not racially diverse. What caused the number of enslaved people to increase during the early 1800s? (A) Southern industry required slave labor. (B) Enslaved people had children who also became enslaved. (C) Importation of slaves rose. (D) Plantation owners wanted more slaves to help grow cotton. Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! The Growth of Nationalism Chapter 8, Section 4 • What were some signs of a new nationalism after the War of 1812? • Why was the election of 1824 controversial? • What new political parties emerged in 1828, and what views did they represent? How did domestic and foreign policies reflect the nationalism of the times? After the War of 1812, nationalism affected economic and foreign policy and began to create a sense of national identity. Supreme Court rulings supported nationalism by favoring federal power. What is nationalism? • devotion and loyalty to one's own country; patriotism. • excessive patriotism; chauvinism. • the policy or doctrine of asserting the interest of one's own nation viewed as separate from the interests of other nations or the common interests of all nations. • Nationalism is the opposite of sectionalism and/or parochialism Nationalism “The War of 1812 inspired an outburst of nationalist pride. But the war also revealed how far the U.S. still was from being a truly integrated nation….” Nationalism “A younger generation of Republicans, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, believed that ‘infant industries’ deserved national protection. While retaining their Jeffersonian belief in an agrarian republic, they insisted that agriculture must be complemented by a manufacturing sector if the country were to become economically independent of Britain.” A new tariff was enacted in 1816 that had the support of many Democratic-Republicans. Nationalism “In 1806, Congress used public funds towards a National Road…Two years later Jefferson’s Secretary of the Treasury outlined a plan for the federal government to tie the vast nation together by constructing roads and canals up and down the eastern seaboard, …” When it came to further federal investment in infrastructure (roads, bridges, etc.), it wouldn’t be until the 1950s when Congress and the President would approve interstate road building. Nationalism “In 1815 President Madison put forward a blueprint for government promoted economic development that came to be known as the American System, a label coined by Henry Clay….The plan rested on three pillars: a new national bank, a tariff on imported manufactured goods to protect American industry, and federal financing of improved roads and canals.” (Give Me Liberty, pgs.361362, 3rd Ed.) Nationalism • Although the tariff and national bank became law in 1816, Madison, afraid that the national government, if given powers not expressed in the constitution, would interfere with individual liberty and slavery in southern states, vetoed an internal improvements bill. • The Second Bank of the United States (BUS), a private, profitmaking corporation that served as the government’s financial agent, soon became resented by many Americans. The BUS was also tasked with regulating the volume of paper money printed by private banks to prevent fluctuations and inflation (at this point the federal government did not print money). Under President James Monroe, the Democratic Republicans enjoyed an “era of good feelings.” The party backed nationalistic economic policies that used federal power to assist business and industry. This focus on business was a change from the government’s earlier support of agriculture and a weak federal government. With so little political fighting, some believed that political parties might disappear. Henry Clay campaigned for a nationalistic economic policy called the American System, which included: • high tariffs to protect industrial growth. • road and canal construction, called internal improvements, to link the different sections of the nation. • National bank Clay believed the different regions could work together for the prosperity of the entire nation. The Panic of 1819: A Setback for National Pride and Unity • Rather than regulating the currency and loans issued by local banks, the Bank of the United States contributed to widespread speculation, mostly in land, after the War of 1812. When European demand for American farm goods decreased in 1819, this speculative bubble burst. Dropping land prices ruined farmers and businessmen who could no longer pay their loans, banks failed, and unemployment spread in eastern cities. The Panic of 1819: Its Impact • The short-lived Panic of 1819 disrupted the political harmony established after the war’s end. Some states controversially provided relief to debtors, much to the chagrin of creditors. Most important, the panic reinforced many American’s longstanding distrust of banks, and it undermined the reputation of the BUS, which was blamed for the panic. The Panic of 1819: Its Impact • When states retaliated against the BUS by taxing its local branches, the Supreme Court under John Marshall ruled in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) that the BUS was a legitimate exercise of congressional authority under the Constitution. This directly contradicted the “strict constructionist” view that Congress could use only those powers expressly in the Constitution. This case was a victory for nationalists and further validation of Hamilton’s vision of a strong national government with broad powers. John C. Calhoun Henry Clay Chapter 8, Section 4 Nationalism at Home Many Americans came to think of President James Monroe’s two terms in office (1817– 1826) as the Era of Good Feeling. During Monroe’s terms, the Supreme Court, under Chief Justice John Marshall, made several important decisions that strengthened the federal government’s role in the national economy. Protecting Contracts In Dartmouth College v. Woodward, the Marshall Court ruled that states cannot interfere with private contracts. This ruling later came to protect businesses from regulation, stabilizing the national economy. Supporting the National Bank In McCulloch v. Maryland, Marshall ruled that Congress had the right to charter the Bank of the United States even though the Constitution did not specifically mention it. Marshall based his argument on the “necessary and proper” clause in the Constitution. Regulating Commerce In Gibbons v. Ogden, the Court declared that states could not interfere with Congress’s right to regulate business on interstate waterways. This ruling increased steamboat competition, helping open up the American West for settlement. Nationalism Abroad: The Monroe Doctrine • • • • President Monroe, together with Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, began a new approach to American foreign policy. One of Monroe’s main goals was to ease tensions with Great Britain, which remained high after the War of 1812. In 1817, the United States and Great Britain signed the Rush-Bagot Agreement, which called on both nations to reduce the number of warships in the Great Lakes region. The following year, the two countries set the northern border of the United States at 49 degrees North latitude. Monroe was also concerned that other European countries, recovering from several years of warfare, would resume their efforts to colonize the Western Hemisphere. Chapter 8, Section 4 The Monroe Doctrine In a speech on December 2, 1823, President Monroe established a policy that every President has since followed to some degree. The Monroe Doctrine had four main parts: The United States would not become involved in the internal affairs of European nations, nor would it take sides in wars among them. The United States recognized the existing colonies and states in the Western Hemisphere and would not interfere with them. The United States would not permit any further colonization of the Western Hemisphere. Any attempt by a European power to take control of any nation in the Western Hemisphere would be viewed as a hostile action toward the United States. Sectionalism: Issues Threatening National Unity As early as 1819 the U.S was developing into three distinct sections with particular interests: the Northeast, the West, and the South. These sections were already going into different directions due to three developments, such as 1) westward expansion, 2) the rise of King Cotton in the South, 3) industrialization in the Northeast Sectionalism: Issues Threatening National Unity • An economic depression, The Panic of 1819, and the controversy over the admission of Missouri as a slave state exposed the emerging conflicting economic and political interests of the Northeast, West, and South. • Beneath the surface of relative peace and prosperity (The era of Good Feelings), these developments revealed deep trouble ahead. Sectionalism: Issues Threatening National Unity • Each section wanted national laws favoring its economy. Conflicts arose because a law benefiting one section might harm another. • Conflicting economic interests led to political rivalry, as each section wanted strong congressional representation to carry the vote for its economic interests. Sectionalism: Issues Threatening National Unity • Forty years of sectional rivalry led to the Civil War (186165). Five major issues dominated the national agenda from the 1810s to 1860. Sectional differences over these issues increased tensions, jealousies, and ultimately conflict between the Northeast and West versus the South in the Civil War. • The issues were: western land, labor, the tariff, internal improvements, and money. Sectionalism: Issues Threatening National Unity • The issues were: western land, labor, the tariff, internal improvements, and money. • On these 5 key issues, the Northeast and South failed to agree on even one. The Northeast and West agreed on three: the tariff(both favored high tariffs), internal improvements (both supported them), and most importantly of all, both favored “free” (wage) labor over slave labor. • A political power struggle developed between the free labor states of the North (east and west) and the slave labor states of the South. The section controlling the federal government could set economic policies, such as tariffs, that would affect the very livelihood of the other. Sectionalism: Issues Threatening National Unity A political power struggle developed between the free labor states of the North (east and west) and the slave labor states of the South. The section controlling the federal government could set economic policies, such as tariffs, that would affect the very livelihood of the other. Political power, then, became crucial to economic interests. By 1861 the political power struggle between North and South would lead to Civil War. The Missouri Compromise (1820): A sign of future trouble… • National unity appeared short-lived when Missouri’s petition for statehood in 1819 as a slave state upset many northern members of Congress. At that time 11 states were free and 11 states were slave. Missouri’s admittance would not only upset the balance in favor of the slave states, but also be only the tip of an avalanche of slave states admitted as part of the Louisiana territory. Henry Clay engineered a compromise. • Missouri entered as a slave state. • Maine, which had been a northern part of Massachusetts entered as a free state. • The rest of the Louisiana Territory was divided between free territories, north of 36 30’, and slave south of that line. • This was not the end, but only the beginning! The Controversial Election of 1824 • Four major candidates competed for the presidency in 1824. For the first time, no candidate had been a leader during the Revolution. • These candidates were Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, Speaker of the House Henry Clay, William Crawford of Georgia, and General Andrew Jackson. • Jackson was regarded by many as a wildcard candidate, an outsider famous for his war victories. • While in Congress, Clay had supported what he called the American System, a policy of government-backed economic development and protective tariffs to encourage business growth. The Controversial Election of 1824 • Popular Vote: Jackson (153,544) Adams, (108,740) Crawford (46, 618) Clay (47,136) • Electoral Vote: Jackson (99) Adams (84) Crawford (41) Clay (37) • No candidate won a majority of electoral votes. As required by the Constitution, the House of Representatives voted to decide the election. Clay helped win victory for Adams, who made Clay his Secretary of State days later. Angry Jackson supporters claimed that Adams and Clay had made a “corrupt bargain” to deny Jackson the presidency. Chapter 8, Section 4 Two New Parties Face Off The American System and the National Republicans • Adams and Clay pushed for laws authorizing the federal construction of roads, canals, bridges, and other public improvements. • Supporters of Andrew Jackson in Congress blocked such plans at every turn. • Supporters of Adams and Clay began calling themselves the Adams Party or National Republicans, later to be known as Whigs. Jackson and the Election of 1828 • Supporters of Andrew Jackson called themselves Jacksonians or Democratic Republicans. Historians now call them Jacksonian Democrats. • Jackson won the presidential election of 1828 by a large margin. • Many men who did not own property were allowed to vote for the first time. These voters chose Jackson, the candidate they felt was a man of the people. Election of 1828 • Jackson: 647,286 popular votes and 178 electoral votes • J.Q. Adams: 508,064 popular votes and 83 electoral votes The Growth of Nationalism— Assessment Chapter 8, Section 4 Which of the following statements was part of the Monroe Doctrine? (A) Congress had the authority to charter the Bank of America. (B) The United States would not interfere in European internal affairs. (C) The House of Representatives would decide an election in which no candidate won a majority. (D) The northern border of the United States would be set at 49˚ North latitude. What did supporters of Adams and Clay call their political party? (A) The Democratic Republicans (B) The National Republicans (C) The Jacksonian Democrats (D) The Whigs Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! The Growth of Nationalism— Assessment Chapter 8, Section 4 Which of the following statements was part of the Monroe Doctrine? (A) Congress had the authority to charter the Bank of America. (B) The United States would not interfere in European internal affairs. (C) The House of Representatives would decide an election in which no candidate won a majority. (D) The northern border of the United States would be set at 49˚ North latitude. What did supporters of Adams and Clay call their political party? (A) The Democratic Republicans (B) The National Republicans (C) The Jacksonian Democrats (D) The Whigs Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! Chapter 8, Section 5 The Age of Jackson • How did American government and democracy change with Jackson as President? • How did Jackson respond to the tariff and Indian crises? • What political strategies prompted the bank war? • How effective were Jackson’s presidential successors? The Spread of Democracy* (White Males Only) • America’s amazing economic transformations at the beginning of the nineteenth century led to equally dramatic shifts within the political culture of the United States. • Following the War of 1812, political power at the local and state levels steadily moved away from the propertied elites who had dominated American government in the years preceding the war. Government officials were urged to express the will of the people by supporting policies and programs that addressed the concerns of the majority rather than a privileged elite. The Expansion of Suffrage • As more Americans migrated westward and new states entered the union, property qualifications for voting and holding office were dropped. Some older states followed suit by either ending such restrictions completely or curtailing them to the point that broad male suffrage was secured by extending the vote to taxpayers, those who served in the state militia, or perhaps, those who worked on road construction. The reality of partisan politics forced eastern elites to realize that by extending the right to vote, they might receive the popular endorsement of these new constituents and more easily retain their power. The Expansion of White Suffrage • By 1840, ninety percent of the adult white male population over the age of twenty-one could vote in national and state elections— note, of course, that the right of suffrage was not yet extended to women or free blacks. As more Americans than ever before began to vote, the political agenda for numerous state and national leaders began to change as voters took a more active role in politics. The Expansion of White Suffrage • Government officials were forced to respond to calls for cheaper land, “squatter’s rights,” the abolition of debtors’ prisons, lower taxes, and protection from Native Americans. Greater political participation changed several other aspects of American political culture: the demand for newspapers covering political events grew, outdoor political rallies were more frequent, and national politicians began to capitalize on large public gatherings at various entertainment venues. The Birth of the Democratic Party • Meanwhile, leading Republicans struggled to retain the political cohesion they had gained after the War of 1812. This task became increasingly difficult in the wake of the Panic of 1819 and the Missouri Crisis of 1820 as sectional divisions splintered the old Democratic-Republican Party. Meanwhile, activists, like Martin Van Buren of New York, worked diligently to build new political coalitions that would take advantage of the changing electorate in the United States. Chapter 8, Section 5 Jackson as President Andrew Jackson as President 1829–1837 Jackson’s Inauguration Jacksonian Democracy The Spoils System Limited Government When Jackson was inaugurated, supporters immediately rushed forward to greet him. They followed him into the White House to try to get a glimpse of their hero, the first President from west of the Appalachians. Jackson’s support came from thousands of new voters. New laws that allowed all white men to vote, as well as laws that let voters, rather than state legislatures, choose electors, gave many more people a voice in choosing their government. The practice of patronage, in which newly elected officials give government jobs to friends and supporters, was not new in Jackson’s time. Jackson made this practice, known as the spoils system to critics, official. Jackson believed in limiting the power of the federal government and used his veto power to restrict federal activity as much as possible. His frequent use of the veto helped earn him the nickname “King Andrew I.” “Old Hickory”, Van Buren and the Democratic Party • In the aftermath of Jackson’s victory, the old-style deference to an American elite gave way to a new boisterous political culture that was based on a representative government and sought to advance the interests of “common people.” During the election campaign, he solidified his base in the South by nominating John C. Calhoun as his vice presidential running mate; after the election, he bolstered his support by appointing Van Buren as his secretary of state and by distributing patronage to his supporters as reward for their loyal support. Jackson’s efforts placed him at the head of a rather formidable political machine that not only reached the national level, but extended downward to state and local governments as well. Chapter 8, Section 5 The Tariff Crisis • Before Jackson’s first term had begun, Congress passed the Tariff of 1828, a heavy tax on imports designed to boost American manufacturing. • The tariff greatly benefited the industrial North but forced southerners to pay high prices for manufactured goods. • In response to the tariff, South Carolina claimed that states could nullify, or reject, federal laws they judged to be unconstitutional. It based this claim on a strict interpretation of states’ rights, the powers that the Constitution neither gives to the federal government nor denies to the states. • South Carolina nullified the tariffs and threatened to secede, or withdraw, from the Union, if the federal government did not respect its nullification. • A compromise engineered by Senator Henry Clay ended the crisis. However, the issue of states’ rights continued to influence the nation. Chapter 8, Section 5 The Indian Crisis Indian Relocation Cherokee Resistance Indian Uprisings In the 1820s, cotton farmers in the South sought to expand into Native American lands. The 1830 Indian Removal Act authorized President Jackson to give Native Americans land in parts of the Louisiana Purchase in exchange for land in the East. Although some groups moved peacefully, Jackson forcibly relocated many members of the Five Tribes, or the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole peoples. The Cherokee had adopted more aspects of white culture than any other Native American group. When the state of Georgia seized millions of acres of Cherokee land, the Cherokee brought their case to the Supreme Court. The Court ruled that Georgia had no authority over Cherokee territory, but Georgia, with Jackson’s backing, defied the Court. In a nightmare journey which the Cherokee call the Trail of Tears, Cherokees were led on a forced march west. In 1832, a warrior named Black Hawk led about 1,000 Indians back to their fertile land, hoping to regain it peacefully. The clashes which resulted became known as the Black Hawk War. In 1835, a group of Seminoles in Florida, led by a chief named Osceola, began the Second Seminole War, a conflict which was to continue for nearly seven years. Chapter 8, Section 5 The Bank War The Bank of the United States • Like many Americans, Jackson viewed the Bank of the United States as a “monster” institution controlled by a small group of wealthy easterners. • Supported by Senators Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, the charter’s president, Nicholas Biddle, decided to recharter the bank in 1832, four years earlier than necessary. • Clay and Webster thought that Jackson would veto the charter, and planned to use that veto against him in the 1832 election. Jackson Vetoes the Charter • Jackson vetoed the bill to recharter the bank, claiming that the back was a tool of the greedy and powerful. • • Despite Clay and Webster’s intentions, the veto did not hurt Jackson’s campaign. Jackson won reelection in 1832 by a huge margin, defeating Clay, the National Republican candidate. The National Republicans never recovered from this defeat. Two years later, they joined several other anti-Jackson groups to form the Whig Party. Chapter 8, Section 5 Jackson’s Successors • Ill health led Jackson to choose not to run for a third term. His Vice President, Martin Van Buren, was elected President in the 1836 election. • Van Buren lacked Jackson’s popularity. In addition, an economic depression occurring during Van Buren’s term led many voters to support the Whig candidate, William Henry Harrison, in the next election. • A month after taking office as President in 1841, Harrison died of pneumonia. • Harrison’s Vice President, John Tyler, took over as President. Tyler had been chosen for strategic reasons, and the Whigs had never expected him to assume the presidency. Tyler blocked much of the Whig program, leading to four years of political deadlock. The Age of Jackson — Assessment Chapter 8, Section 5 What was the Trail of Tears? (A) The forced march of the Cherokee into western territory (B) Black Hawk’s journey to reclaim Native American lands (C) An ongoing conflict with the Seminoles in Florida (D) An act which allowed the federal government to relocate Native Americans Why did Jackson veto the bill to recharter the Bank of the United States? (A) He preferred to leave the decision to his successors. (B) He thought that the bank violated states’ rights. (C) He felt that the bank was a tool of the greedy and powerful. (D) He wanted to lend Henry Clay support in the 1832 election. Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here! The Age of Jackson — Assessment Chapter 8, Section 5 What was the Trail of Tears? (A) The forced march of the Cherokee into western territory (B) Black Hawk’s journey to reclaim Native American lands (C) An ongoing conflict with the Seminoles in Florida (D) An act which allowed the federal government to relocate Native Americans Why did Jackson veto the bill to recharter the Bank of the United States? (A) He preferred to leave the decision to his successors. (B) He thought that the bank violated states’ rights. (C) He felt that the bank was a tool of the greedy and powerful. (D) He wanted to lend Henry Clay support in the 1832 election. Want to link to the Pathways Internet activity for this chapter? Click here!