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What you absolutely must know to pass the regent’s test What is a hypothesis? An untested prediction based on what you know about the topic. Has cause and effect (If, then statement) What is a theory? An explanation of natural events supported by strong evidence. What is a controlled experiment? An experiment that compares to results of two or more groups. Experimental and control groups What is an experimental group? The group being tested Receiving the variable that the other group(s) do not get. What you are testing What is a placebo? Fake treatment given to someone in the control group so they don’t know they are different. What is the independent variable? The variable that is being tested. Ex: new drug. When graphed it is plotted on the X axis. What is the dependent variable? Variable that is measured at the end of the experiment. We measure the effect of the independent variable Ex: we can measure (the effect a drug has on heart rate beats per minute) .we can measure the effect energy drinks have on test performance (test grades) What are the characteristics of a good experiment? (there are 7) 1. can be repeated by others with same results. 2. Does not have to agree with your hypothesis 3. Large sample to test What would happen if a life form could not maintain homeostasis? Disease or death What is an autotroph? Give ex. Organism that makes own food from the sun Plant, algae Explain photosynthesis. Take radiant (solar) energy from the sun and use it to make sugars or carbohydrates. What is a heterotroph? Give ex. Must consume other organism for energy. Mushroom, animal In what cell organelle does photosynthesis take place? Cholorplast What is respiration? Break down of sugar molecules to release the energy so the organism may use it What is the form of energy in the cell. ATP In what organelle does respiration take place? mitochondria What is does aerobic respiration mean? Uses oxygen to make ATP. What is anaerobic respiration? Making ATP without using oxygen. What process makes more ATP, anaerobic or aerobic respiration? Aerobic respiration yields a lot more ATP. When the muscles run out of energy during exercise, anaerobic respiration begins. What is the product of this fermentation. Lactic acid. How are photosynthesis and respiration connected. Photosynthesis uses co2 and releases oxygen, respiration uses oxygen and releases co2. Part of the carbon, oxygen cycle. All of the life processes including nutrition, excretion, transport, etc. make up what in an organism? Metabolism It is the sum of all the life processes. Define diffusion. Does it require energy? Movement of molecules from high concentration to low. You want an even concentration on both sides. Diffusion does not require energy. Define active transport Movement of molecules from low concentration to high concentration (opposite direction as diffusion) Requires energy to move What is osmosis? Diffusion of water in or out of a cell. What happens to a cell in a hypertonic environment. High salt outside, low water inside cell Water diffuses out and shrivels up. What happens to cell in a hypotonic solution. High salt inside cell, low outside Water diffuses inside and cell can burst. What is a stimulus? A change in the environment that you respond to. What is a neuron? A nerve cell What is an impulse of the nervous system Electrical signal carried by the nerves. What is a hormone? Give 1 ex. A chemical messenger or signal secreted by different glands. Adrenalin, testosterone, estrogen Name one of the characteristics of living things. (8) Living things are made up of cells. 2. Living things reproduce. 3. Living things are based on a universal genetic code. 4. Living things grow and develop. 5. Living things use materials and energy. 6. Living things respond to their environment. 7. Living things maintain a stable internal environment. 8. As a group, living things change over time (evolve). 1. What is the name for proteins on the surface of cells that receive signals from the nervous endocrine system? Receptor molecule What four elements make up most living organisms? C, H, O, N Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen What does it mean to be organic? Something is made of Carbon and Hydrogen, bonded together. What type of molecule is the C6H12O6? Is it organic? Sugar, carbohydrate Yes Is CO2 organic? NO What are the monomers of carbohydrates? Simple sugars. What is the function of a carbohydrate in the body? Give an example of a carbohydrate? Provide body with energy. Sugar, starch What are the monomers of lipids? Fatty acids and glycerol What are the functions of lipids? Give an example of lipids Storage form of energy. Fats, oils, waxes. What are the monomers of proteins? Amino acids What are the functions of proteins in the body? Make hormones, enzymes, cell structures and antibodies. What determines the specific function of a protein? The shape of the protein determines its shape. What is an enzyme? A catalyst meaning it affects the rate the body reactions occur. What is the “lock and key model” for enzymes? One type of enzyme will react (fits) one type of molecule. What affect does temperature have on the way enzymes react. Cold temps decrease reaction rate High temps increase reaction rate. As rate gets too high, the proteins die and no reaction occurs. What is pH A scale used to measure the strengths of acids and bases. What is the ph ranges for acids and bases. Acids: pH lower than 7 Bases pH higher than 7 pH of 7 is neutral (water) What are the 3 components of the cell theory? All living things are composed (made of) cells. 2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things. 3. New cells are produced from existing cells. 1. What is the function of the nucleus Control activities of the cell What is the function of the mitochondria? Make ATP What is the function of the ribosome? In what 2 places will you find them Proteins are assembled here out of amino acids. What is an inference? A conclusion one comes to based in his or her observations. What is the function of the golgi aparatus (golgi body) Make, process and package proteins. Sends proteins to their final destination What is the function of the lysosome? Contains digestive enzymes to help break food down. Also breaks down old organelles What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum? A) intracellular transport: moves things around cell B. provides surface area for biochemical reactions What are the two types of ER? Smooth and rough What is the function of a vacuole? Used for storage, vacuoles usually contain water or food What is the function of the cytoplasm? A) holds other organelles B) many chemical reactions of cell metabolism occur here. C) contains enzymes needed for cellular reactions What is the function of the cell or plasma membrane? controls transport of materials into & out of the cell, therefore maintaining homeostasis within the cell. What organelles do plants have that animals cells do not. Chloroplast Cell wall What is the function of the cell wall? supports and protects the plant cell. Has pores that allow free passage of materials. ** the cell wall is not alive and is not selectively permeable What is the function of the cholorplast? Site of photosynthesis. What is the cell membrane made of? Lipid bilayer and embedded proteins. What does selectively permeable mean? What organelle doe this describe. Some molecules can pass, while others can not. The cell membrane. What size molecule pass thru the cell membrane? Usually small ones like amino acids and simple sugars. Whole proteins and carbohydrates are too large. Starting with a cell, the simplest form of life, what is the organization of life? Cells-tissues-organs-organ systemwhole organism. A group of cells that perform a similar function are: tissue A group of tissue that perform a similar function are An organ Every cell has the same exact DNA due to replication and mitosis. Why are some cells different than others like heart cells and lung cells? Each cells has the same genes, but different genes are turned on in different cells. Skins cells have all the genes to make nerve cells, but those genes are turned off. What is digestion? When large food molecules are broken into smaller molecules so they can be absorbed. What is the path of the digestive system from start to finish? Mouth Esophagus Stomach Small intestines Large intestines Rectum What is peristalsis? Involuntary contractions of smooth muscle that move food through the digestive tract. What is mechanical digestion? Where does it occur? Physically breaking down food. Mouth with teeth Stomach- churning food. What is chemical digestion? Where does it occur? Body chemicals and enzymes to break down food. Mouth has amylase to break down sugar Stomach has acid What is the function of the circulatory system? Transport materials through the body. Water, nutrients hormones, waste, oxygen What doe red blood cells carry They carry oxygen. Hemoglobin helps them bind to oxygen. What is the function of White blood cells? Fight disease. What is phagocytosis? White blood cells engulf or eat pathogens such as bacteria to remove them from the body. What is the function of platelets? Clot the blood. What is the fluid part of the blood called? What does it tranport? Plasma, Everything but oxygen What is the difference between sexual and asexual reproduction? Asexual: one parent, offspring is genetically identical to parent. Sexual: Two parents, offspring is variation of both parents. What organism reproduces faster, one that uses the asexual process or sexual process? Asexual is much faster Is mitosis a form of sexual or asexual reproduction? asexual During mitosis, how does the chromosome number in the first parent cell compare to the two new daughter cells? Exact same. What type of cells on humans under mitosis? Body or somatic cells. How many chromosomes do humans have? 23 pairs or 46 chromosomes. What are alleles? A gene that is a code for a trait. Where do we get our alleles One from mother, one from father. What are the four nitrogenous bases that make up DNA and how do they pair up adenine-thymine Guanine-cytosine What word describes a three letter code for a specific amino acid? What is an amino acid(hint)? C O D O N What base is missing in RNA? What base replaces it? Thymine is missing Uracil replaces it. During protein synthesis, where does mRNA carry the code so an protein can be assembled (hint) ? site of protein synthesis in the cell Ribosome A change in the DNA code is a mutation In what cells must mutation occur in in order to be passed to the next generation? Sex cells, AKA gametes, egg and cell. Explain the process of selective breeding? Why is it done? Taking the organisms with the most desired traits and breeding them To get the most desired traits in animals in plants. What is genetic engineering (gene splicing)? Taking a gene from one organism and putting it into another so it produces something different. How is genetic engineering used to make human insulin? Human insulin gene is put into a bacteria cell. Bacteria is tricked into making human insulin. What is DNA fingerprinting? Using DNA to identify someone, criminal, your baby’s daddy etc. Under evolution, what is the common ancestor theory? Modern species evolved from earlier different species What is Darwin’s theory of natural selection? The animals with the best traits survive to reproduce. What are the three components of natural selection? 1. Overproduction: more are born than the environment can support. 2. Competition: There are limited resources and too many animals 3. Survival and reproduction: animals with best traits pass their DNA (reproduce) Name one natural force that drives evolution? Change in environment What does variation mean? Give one example we used in lab. Organism of the same species have different characteristics. Beaks of finches. Within a species is it better to have more or less variations? More is better. When the environment changes, that species has a better chance to survive. For the time period that evolution t takes place, what is gradualism? Organisms change slowly and steady over a period of time. What is punctuated equilibrium? Evolution takes place in quick spurts followed by a long with no change. What does it mean when organisms evolve due to geographic isolation? Means that the two species have been separated so they can no longer reproduce. Eventually the evolve in different directions and become different species. Mountains, rivers, oceans, can cause this separation. Name two of any of the types of evidence that support evolution? Fossil record (geology) Genetics: comparing DNA Biochemistry (similar body processes) Anatomy: comparing body parts Embryology: comparing developing embryos. What is the primary source of energy in the ecosystem? The sun. Define producer organism? Give another name for a producer. Organism that uses the radiant energy to make sugar, starch so others can consume it. Autotroph, plant In a food pyramid, how much energy is lost when you move up the food chain? 10% What does abiotic mean? Give 2 examples. factors non-living factors which affect the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce. light intensity, temperature range, type of soil or rock, water availability, level of pollutant What are limiting factors? Give an example Factors which determine the types and numbers of organisms in an ecosystem. Many limiting factors restrict the growth of populations. Ex. Low temperature in arctic, any abiotic factors. What are biotic factors? Give an ex. the living things or their materials that affect an organism in its environment. This would include organisms, their presence, parts, interaction, and wastes. Some Biotic Factors parasitism disease predation (one animal eating another) What is the carrying capacity of an environment? Carrying capacity: the maximum number of organisms the resources of an ecosystem can support. It is limited by the available abiotic and biotic resources as well as the ability of the environment to recycle the dead organisms through the activities of bacteria and fungi. What is a primary consumer? A herbivore or animal that eats producers/plants What is the difference between a secondary consumer and an omnivore? A secondary consumer is a carnivore that just eats meat. An omnivore eats both plants and animals. What is the difference between a food chain and a good web? Which is more accurate and why? Food chain is simpler, a food web is many food chains in one diagram. Food chain because organism consume more than one food source. In the water cycle, what is transpiration? water lost to the atmosphere by the activities of plants (as water vapor). What is condensation? water vapor condenses to form clouds, Briefly explain the carbon-oxygen cycle. Plants take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen Animals take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide. What is the role of a decomposer? Give one example of one. Recycle the materials in dead organisms Bacteria and fungus. What is symbiosis? Close living relationships among organisms.. Parasitism is a type of symbiosis. What is it? the parasite benefits at the expense of the host What is mutualism and give an example? both organisms benefit from the association. Ex: flower and butterfly What is commensalism and give an example? one organism is benefited and the other is unharmed. Ex: mushroom on tree Define biodiversity. refers to the differences in living things in an ecosystem. Why does more biodiversity make the environment more stable? as it provides for more genetic variation among species. A great diversity of species increases the chance that at least some living things will survive when the environment changes. Define ecological succession? The process by which the forest grows back after it has been disrupted. Can also be development of a lake. What is a pioneer organism? Are they still there after the environment is fully grown back? the first organisms to reoccupy an area which has been disturbed. These pioneer organisms change their environment, eventually creating conditions which are less favorable for themselves but establishing conditions under which more advanced organisms can live. What is climax community? This final stable plant community What is a niche? includes how a population responds to the abundance of its resources and enemies What is a biosphere? All the regions of the earth and its atmosphere in which living organisms are found or can live. What is a renewable resource and give an example? any natural resource that can replenish itself naturally over time ex: wood, coal, fresh water etc. In the beginning of the evolution unit, we talked about evidence for evolution. There were six evidences for evolution. One was Plate Tectonics. Name two of the other five. Fossils, comparative anatomy, comparative embryology, comparative biochemistry, adaptations. Under comparative anatomy, we talked about homologous structures. Define this and give an . example Two organisms that have similar bone structures, but different functions. Example: whale fin, human hand, bat wing…… Also, under comparative anatomy, we discussed vestigial organs. . What are they and give an example Organs or traces of organs that no longer serve a purpose. Example: appendix, tail bones Explain Lamark’s theory of inheritance of acquired traits? If an organisms body was altered, it would be passed to the next generation Ex. Mouse tail is cut off, babies will have no tails. What does adaptive radiation mean? (hint for half credit Radiation: branching from one source Answer: the process by which a species evolve into a number of different species, each in a different environment. What does Lamark’s theory of “use and disuse claim?” Organisms can change the size or shape of their organs Use: birds can grow wings by trying to fly. Disuse: If birds don’t use wings, they lose them. Define “decent with modification” Each species has descended with changes from other species over time. Name one of the four sources of variation in the gene pool? Mutations, sexual reproduction, migration, genetic drift. Define migration Organisms move in and out of a population, spreading their genes. Why did Darwin have trouble explaining where variations in the finches came from (hint for half credit)? Hint: what did he not know about that we know a lot about today? DNA and genes. In what cells must mutations occur in for them to be passed to the next generation (hint for half credit)? There are only two types of cells, one type are somatic or body cells. The other type is the answer Answer: Sex cells What does the chart represent? When several species evolve from one species Adaptive radiation A group of house flies are sprayed with an insecticide. Several generations later, house flies are resistant to the insecticide. Why? Mutations causes some to be resistant. Those that are resistant had babies that are also resistant. As the nonresistant died, all that was left was the resistant flies. Why do mammals, fish and reptiles all have gill slits when they are embryos? They all had a common ancestor What is this an example of Homologous structures What does this chart explain? Punctuated equilibrium Darwin’s theory of natural selection is based on five major concepts. Name two and explain them. Speciation: creation of new species Adaptation: inherited traits allow an organism to survive in a changing environment. Variation: difference among the same species Competition: compete for limited resources Overproduction: More are produced than can survive Define gene pool The total of all the genes in a group of reproducing organism Identify the specific cause, the negative effect and how we are trying to fix acid rain. Burning fossil fuels Loss of biodiversity Hybrid cars, laws What is an exotic species and how can they be dangerous to the environment? Imported foreign organisms have caused problems for native organisms (one’s already living there). These exotic species out competition native organisms killing them off What causes acid precipitation? Most acid rain in New York State is caused by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide pollution from the burning of fossil fuels. What are the problems caused by acid precipitation? Streams and lakes becoming more acid, killing fish, frogs and other life. Damage forests and other plants in a variety of ways Explain global warming? What causes it? increased burning of fossil fuels and the release of carbon dioxide increase in level of carbon dioxide and other gases is not allowing much infrared (heat radiation) to escape the planet into outer space. This is causing our planet to slowly warm. What are the negative effects of global warming? Rising sea levels and coastal flooding Changed rain patterns resulting in droughts and crop failures Increase in insect diseases in regions Ex. New York State: warmer winters fail to kill the disease carrying insects like West Nile Name two actions taken by humans to reduce damage to the environment. 1. Recycling wastes 2. Conserving available resources 3. Using cleaner resources (ex: solar over fossil fuels) 4.protection of habitats and endangered species 5. use of biological controls instead of pesticides and herbicides 6. Farming native plants (ex: cocoa in the rainforest) 7. Planting trees to replace those cut down. 8. Rotating crops or planting cover crops to reduce soil loss. What are autosomes and how many pairs do humans have? The chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes. 22 pairs of autosomes 1 pair of sex chromosomes What was the human genome project? human genome project was the attempt of scientist to sequence the entire DNA molecule of a human being (all six feet of it). What is DNA fingerprinting? What technique is used to compare the DNA? identifying of individuals using the unique sequence of bases in their DNA molecule Gel electrophoresis What is artificial selection (form of selective breeding)? where individuals with desirable traits are mated to produce offspring with those traits. What is inbreeding (selective breeding)? Breeding closely related individuals What is hybridization? involves crossing two individuals with different desirable traits to produce offspring with a combination of both desirable traits. Ex : mule= donkey + horse What is a restriction enzyme? An enzyme that cuts DNA a specific base sequence Ex: GGCC is DNA sequence and restriction enzyme cuts between G and C What is a point mutation? mutations involving one nucleotide and they occur at a single point on the DNA molecule. What is DNA REPLICATION? What happens to the cell after dna replicates? duplicating or copying the DNA before the cell divides. Cell division/mitosis What does DNA polymerase do? - enzyme helps unzip DNA The two stands separate so DNA can be copied. Weak hydrogen bonds break between the paired bases G-C How does RNA differ from DNA? Sugar = ribose Single stranded Uracil replaces thymine What are the 3 TYPES OF RNA and what are their functions? Messenger RNA (mRNA) – carries copies of instructions from the DNA (serve as messengers from the DNA to rest of cell). Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)– proteins that make up ribosomes. Transfer RNA (tRNA)– transfers amino acids from mRNA to the ribosome. what is TRANSCRIPTION? RNA molecules are produced by copying part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA into a complementary strand. . what is a CODON? Codon – 3 consecutive nucleotides on mRNA that specify a single amino acid that is added to a polypeptide chain. Bases on RNA: UCGCACGGU Broken in 3’s: UCG-CAC-GGU Amino acids the bases code for. Serine – Histidine – Glycine What is an anticodon? 3 base sequence on tRNA How is this chart used to find amino acids on mRNA? Define TRANSLATION as part of protein synthesis and where does it take place? Translation – the cell uses the information from mRNA to make proteins. Takes place in the ribosomes. What is the cell membrane made of? phospholipid bilayer and embedded Protein molecules Run through lipid layer Form channels & pumps The cell membrane is selectively permeable, what does this mean? This means it allows some things inside but other things are rejected. Things coming in and out of the cell are called transport. What is an isotonic solution and which direction does water move when in this environment? Isotonic solution: concentration of solute (salt) is equal on both sides, the water will move back in forth but it won't change the cell. "ISO" means the same