Download 8 - smw15.org

Life Span Development
The Play Years (ages 2 to 6):
Cognitive Development – Chapter 9
Psychosocial Development – Chapter 10
July 1, 2004
Class #8
Theory of Mind
• We each have our own personal
understanding of human mental
processes, and child develops this too
– complex interaction of human mental
processes
•
•
•
•
emotions
thoughts
perceptions
actions
Emergence by Age 4
• Social referencing
• Sudden understanding that mental
phenomena may not reflect reality
– people can be deliberately deceived or
fooled
Contextual Influences on Theory of Mind
•
•
•
•
Brain maturation (prefrontal cortex)
General language ability
An older sibling
Culture that anticipates the future
Language
• Emergent literacy—skills needed to
learn to read
• Is early childhood a sensitive or a
critical period for language
development?
– ages 2 to 6 do seem to be a sensitive
period—a time when a certain type of
development (in this case, emergent
literacy) occurs most rapidly
Vocabulary
• Fast mapping—speedy and not precise way a
child assimilates new words by mentally
“charting” them into interconnected categories
– logical extension, or application of newly
learned word to other unnamed objects in
same category, closely related to fast
mapping
– fast mapping aided by the way adults label
new things for children
Vocabulary
• Children use basic assumptions about
syntax and reference to fast map
– children cannot comprehend every word
they hear
– difficulties may occur
• with words expressing comparisons
• with words expressing relationships of time
and place
Grammar
• The grammar of a language includes
the structures, techniques, and rules
used to communicate meaning
• Young children learn grammar so well
they tend to apply its rules when they
should not, a tendency called
overregularization
– examples: plural nouns (“foots”), past
tense (“breaked the glass”)
Learning Two Languages
• How easy is it to be bilingual?
– many 6-year-olds have difficulty
pronouncing certain sounds
– but auditory sensitivity helps young
children master pronunciation over time,
a much harder task if language learned
after puberty
Learning Two Languages
• Best solution: children become
“balanced bilinguals,” fluent in 2
languages
– research confirms children can become
equally fluent in 2 languages
– easiest way for child to become bilingual is
if parents speak 2 languages
• ideally, each parent represents 1 language and
helps child with mastery
• sending child to preschool where 2nd language
taught also effective
Early-Childhood Education
• Controversy over whether, when, and
where
Many Types of Programs
• Distinct educational curricula have
been developed
– Maria Montessori (100 years ago)
developed structured, individualized
projects for poor children
Child-Centered and Readiness
Programs
• Many newer programs are “childcentered” or “developmental”
– use a Piaget-inspired model that allows
children to discover at their own pace
• Alternative programs stress academic
readiness
– some readiness programs explicitly teach
basic school skills
Reggio-Emilia
• A new form of early-childhood
education pioneered in the Italian city
of that name
– children encouraged to master skills not
normally seen until age 7
– artistic expression, exploration of the
environment, and collaboration between
parents and teachers encouraged
Reggio-Emilia
• Early childhood is the prime learning
period for every child and some learn
even more
• The above has led to conclusion: nations
should provide quality early education
• Head Start
– has provided half-day education for millions
of 3 to 5 year olds, boosting abilities and
skills, at least temporarily and probably for
longer
Quality Learning
• High-quality early education is
associated with positive outcomes for
all children
– what is high-quality education?
• safety, adequate space, and equipment
• low adult-to-child ratio
• trained staff
• curriculum geared to cognitive development
• learning includes creative/constructive play
Chapter 10:
Psychosocial Development
• Emotional Development
– Self
– Goals
– Emotion
• During this age is now key ingredient allowing
self to reach goals
Erikson’s 3rd Stage:
Initiative vs. Guilt
• Occurs during the preschool years…
– As preschool children encounter a widening social
world, they are challenged more than when they were
infants
– Active, purposeful behavior is needed to cope with
these challenges
– Attention span gets longer
– Children are asked to assume responsibility for their
bodies, their behavior, their toys, and their pets
– Self-concept develops
– Developing a sense of responsibility increases initiative
– Uncomfortable guilt feelings may arise, though, if the
child is irresponsible and is made to feel too anxious
about being independent
Cognition and Emotions
• First step to emotional regulation: awareness of own
emotions and the emotional response of others
• Emotional intelligence—Goleman’s term for the
understanding of how to interpret and express emotions
– develops throughout life, but crucial in early
childhood
• amygdala—emotional hotspot in prefrontal cortex
of brain that children need to govern if they are
to become balanced and empathic adults
• parents can use children’s natural attachment to
teach them how and when to express feelings
Empathy and Antipathy
• Empathy—understanding another
person’s emotions
– leads often to prosocial actions
• helping another without obvious benefit to
oneself
• Antipathy—disliking or hating someone
else
– may lead to antisocial behavior
• injuring another person or destroying
something that belongs to another
Empathy and Antipathy
• Sharing
– freely done or directed by others
• Aggression
– instrumental—used to obtain an object such as a
toy
– reactive—involves retaliation for an act whether or
not it was intentional
– relation—designed to inflect psychic (mental) pain
– bullying aggression—unprovoked attack
Learning Social Skills Through Play
• Peers—others of the same age
and status
- peers make the best playmates
- play is most adaptive and productive
activity of children
Active Play
• Rough-and-tumble play
- helps child develop muscle strength
and control
- caregivers should look for a “play
face” when attempting to figure
out if child is playing or fighting
Imaginative Play
• Sociodramatic play
- helps child explore and rehearse
social roles he/she has seen
- helps child test ability to convince
others
- helps child regulate emotions through
imagination
- helps child examine personal concerns
in nonthreatening way
Baumrind’s Three Styles of Parenting
• Baumrind’s 4 important dimensions
that influence parenting
–
–
–
–
expression of warmth or nurturance
strategies for discipline
quality of communication
expectations for maturity
Baumrind’s Three Styles of Parenting
• 3 Styles
– authoritarian—high standards and expectations
with low nurturance
• children likely to become conscientious,
obedient, and quiet—but not happy
– permissive—little control, but nurturing
• children likely to lack self-control and are
not happy
– authoritative—limits and guidance provided but
willing to compromise
• children are more likely to be successful,
articulate, intelligent, and happy
Baumrind’s Three Styles of Parenting
• Recent studies have found link between
parenting styles and child behavior less
direct than Baumrind’s original research
indicated
– impact of child’s temperament
– influence of community and cultural differences
on child’s perception of parenting
– in poor or minority families, authoritarian
parenting tends to be used to produce highachieving, emotionally regulated children: strict
and warm can be successful
Techniques of Discipline
• We discussed this at length in last
class…some points which both
discussion and research seem to
indicate are as follows…
• Discipline an integral part of
parenting
Techniques of Discipline
• Culture is a strong influence
- expectations
- offenses
- punishments
• In United States
- time-out is used
• child stops all activity and sits in corner or stays
inside for a few minutes
Techniques of Discipline
• From class discussion and research it
appears evident that big variation
occurs not only in different cultures
but in ours…
• In deciding which technique to apply,
parents should ask: How does
technique relate to child?
– child’s temperament, age, and
perceptions crucial considerations
What About Spanking?
• Reasons for parenting variations
– culture, religion, ethnicity, national origin
– parents’ own upbringing
• Developmentalists fear children who
are physically punished will learn to be
more aggressive
– domestic violence of any kind can increase
aggression between peers and within
families
– Violence begets more violence???
The Challenge of Video
• Dilemma for parents about letting
children watch television and play
video games
– parents find video a good babysitter
– parents believe video can sometimes be
educational tool
• Experts suggest parents turn off the
TV to avoid exposing children to video
violence
The Evidence on Content
• Exposure to violence great—good guys
and bad guys show violent behavior
• All good guys male; no non-white heroes
• Women/females portrayed as victims or
adoring friends—not as leaders
• Content of video games even worse than
than that of television
– more violent, sexist, racist
The Evidence on Content
• Children, especially males, who watched
educational television became teens who
earned higher grades, read more
• Children, especially females, who watched
violent television had lower grades
The Evidence on Content
• Content of video games crucial reason
behind great concern of developmental
researchers
- research shows that violent TV and video
games push children to be more violent
than they normally would be
• computer games probably worse, as children
are doing the virtual killing
Role of Learning and Culture in Aggression
• Aggressive behavior is more common in
individualist than in collectivist cultures
• Many learn aggressive responses by watching
others
– e.g., Bandura’s “Bobo doll” experiments
• People become aggressive when rewarded for
aggressiveness and less aggressive when
punished for aggression
How do rewards influence aggressiveness?
• Rewards are
reinforcers
• Social learning theory
of aggression 
Andrew Golden, at age 11
gunned down 4 students & 1
teacher at age 11…his
grandfather is a gun collector who
owns hundreds of firearms and is
also a licensed gun dealer
Glamorizing Violence
• Plagens, et al. (1991)
– Typical American child sees 200,000 acts
of violence on TV by age 18
– Children who watch a lot of violent TV
are more violent towards peers
– Experimental studies, in which violence is
controlled, also find effects of watching
violence
Space Blaster
Doomsday Version 2.5
In this video game, it appears you
win by beheading the guy???
Violent Video Games
• Several studies have shown significant
results indicating that playing violent
video games is associated with a history
of property destruction and hitting other
students…
– Anderson & Dill (2000)
• College students randomly assigned to play
a violent video game (Wulfenstein) later
had more aggressive thoughts and feelings
than those who played a nonviolent game
(Tetrix)
The Evidence on Content
• Developmentalists look at the following
to evaluate poor content
- perpetuation of sexist, ageist, and racist
stereotypes
- depiction of violent solutions for every
problem and no expression of empathy
- encouragement of quick, reactive, emotions
rather than thoughtful regulation of
emotions
Albert Bandura
(1925-present)
• Pioneering
researcher in
observational
learning
Is Television To Blame?
• Hundreds of studies say yes!
– Bandura says:
• People become immune to the horrors of violence
• They gradually come to accept violence as a
way to solve problems
• They imitate the violence they observe on
television
• They identify with certain characters
Boy or Girl: So What?
• Male or female—important feature of
self-concept
– Sex differences—biological differences
between males and females
• far less apparent than in adulthood
– Gender differences—culturally imposed
differences in roles and behaviors
• more significant to children than to adults
Development of Gender Awareness
• By age 2, awareness of gender-related
preferences and play patterns
• By age 3, cognitive awareness of own
gender
• By age 4, awareness of “gender
appropriate” toys or roles
• By age 6, well-formed ideas and
prejudices about own sex and the other
sex
Theories of Gender Differences
• Psychoanalytic
– Freud’s view: sexual attraction to
opposite-sex parent
• phallic stage—according to Freud, 3rd stage
of psychosexual development; occurring in
early childhood when penis becomes the
focus of psychological concern and
physiological pleasure
Freud’s Phallic Stage (3-6yrs old)
• Children realize anatomical difference – up to
this point Freud feels that children thought
that the other had the same “equipment”
they did…
• Boys:
– Initially think girls are hiding penis; then think its
been cut off (ouch!)
– According to Freud, at this point in the phallic
stage the boy has discovered masturbation and
wants to direct this phallic activity towards his
mother
Freud’s Phallic Stage:
Boys
• At this point, boys enter Oedipus complex
and are in a “sexual love” with mother and
want to kill father and marry mother
• They want sole sexual possession
• “Castration anxiety” ends this…
– Fear of their father creates the superego
– Desires for mother goes deeply into unconscious
and creates strong superego
– He identifies with dad and incorporates many of
his values
Freud’s Phallic Stage:
Boys
• Basically, he abandons the incestuous
desires of the Id (under the threat of
castration) and subdues the pleasure
principle…
– He does however understand that his time
will come…he’ll get a woman someday
hence he just has to wait to fulfill his
libidinal urges
Freud’s Phallic Stage:
Boys
• This ends the Oedipus complex for
boys…
• Their desires for mom go deeply into
the unconscious…later on in life other
unfulfillable and inexpressible wishes
will follow into this repressed area – like
prohibitions on behavior from parents,
teachers, police, religious authorities,
etc.
Freud’s Phallic Stage:
Girls
• The path for girls is less clear:
• First of all, Freud believes that all girls
suffer from “penis envy”…
• She has seen it, and knows that
she is without it, and she wants to
have it…
Freud’s Phallic Stage:
Girls
• Freud feels that girls try to deal with
these feelings in three possible ways:
– Denial – she persists in her thinking (at
least for awhile) that she has a penis and
this leads to psychosis later in life
– I’ll get one somehow – she may
somehow fixate on the idea that she will
someday get a penis by whatever means
possible
– The normal route – accept the fact that
she has been castrated
Freud’s Phallic Stage:
Girls
• According to Freud, many girls believe they
have been castrated, probably as a
punishment for masturbating…
• Well, regardless of the route taken…
– Inferiority complex develops which carries into
adulthood
– Furious with mother
• Anger and hatred for not giving her a penis
– Contempt for entire female sex
– Also, she feels the clitoris is inferior to the
penis…so much so that she gives up masturbation
entirely…even the idea disgusts her
Freud’s Phallic Stage:
Girls
• Ok, so what happens next…
• Her father becomes a love object…
– Since I can’t get a penis – I’ll have dad’s
baby instead
• At this point, Freud announces, “the girl
has turned into a little woman”
• Mother is rival
– The mother becomes solely the object of
jealousy and rivalry
Freud’s Phallic Stage:
Girls
• So then, how does the Oedipus (Electra)
complex end for girls???
– Freud struggles with explanation…
– Basically, somehow (???) its repressed
• But not deeply into unconscious…
– Girls don’t ever develop strong superego
– Thus, they are not as moral as men
– Aren’t suitable to be leaders, rulers (someone
better tell Hillary)
Freud’s Phallic Stage:
Girls
• Basically, girls never formed the strong
superego – its not anchored like the
boys and thus their unconscious wishes
are more likely to rise up into
consciousness during adulthood
• Many girls stay in Oedipus complex
forever…
– Nothing really ever ended it for them
– Marry guys like dad
Freud’s Phallic Stage
• Bottom line:
• Guilt and fear resolved by gender
appropriate behavior
– Identification
Behaviorism
• Gender-appropriate behavior learned
through observation and imitation
• Children learn gender-appropriate
behavior by modeling it after that of
people they want to imitate
• Especially for young boys, conformity to
gender expectations rewarded,
punished, modeled
Cognitive Theory
• Gender typing occurs after concept of
gender has developed
• Once gender consistently conceived,
child organizes world based on that
understanding
• Gender schema organizes the world in
terms of male and female
- internal motivation to conform to genderbased cultural standards and stereotypes
guides attention and behavior
Sociocultural Theory
• Gender values strenuously kept
• Many traditional cultures emphasize
gender distinctions
• To break through restrictiveness of
cultural expectations, some embrace
the idea of androgyny—a balance of
male and female psychological
characteristics
- true androgyny possible if supported by
whole culture
Epigenetic Theory
• Every aspect of human behavior a mix
of genetics and environment
– environment shapes, enhances, or halts
genetic impulses
• Differences between male and female
brains
• Environmental influences