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6. Cultural Variability
Theories of International Tourism
0. Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
•Understand major sources of cultural differences
•Understand the concept of value system and values orientation
•Identify different types and measurements of values
•Describe major value dimensions
•Identity major cultural differences in values among
international communities
Theories of International tourism
Introduction
Cultural differences influence human behavior.
Cultural values predict human behavior. Cultures
differ along major value dimensions which provide
ways to understand how people behave and
communicate across different cultures, how they
develop social relationships and what perceptions
they develop of others.
Theories of International tourism
1. Sources of cultural differences
Various cultures perceive values, perceptions, attitudes,
stereotypes,
beliefs,
categorizations,
evaluations,
expectations, memories, and opinions in different ways.
Those who are of a similar culture perceive these
elements in the same way. On the other hand, those who
belong to different culture perceive these elements in
different ways. They perceive things differently and
behave differently.
Theories of International tourism
1. Sources of cultural differences
1) Cultural differences in communication
Cultures differ in the way they communicate:
(a) Different patterns of verbal communication
(language and paralanguage; intonation, laughing,
crying, questioning),
(a) Different patterns of non-verbal communication
(body language, such as facial expressions,
head movements, gestures, use of space,
use of physical distance between people)
Theories of International tourism
1. Sources of cultural differences
2) Cultural differences in social categories
-social categories: social role, attitudes towards people etc.
3) Cultural differences in rules of social behavior
-ways of defining and attributing importance to social
relations, ways of establishing and maintaining social relations
etc.
Theories of International tourism
2. Culture values
1) Concept and definitions
The values that permeate a culture are called cultural values,
and they inform about what is good and bad, right and wrong,
true or false, positive or negative, and the like.
Values are principles that define life situations, selection, and
decision-making, and create social order.
Values are individual attributes that can affect people’s attitudes,
perceptions, needs, and motivations.
Theories of International tourism
2. Culture values
2) Culture and values
Values are the core of culture and depend on culture. Culture
is rooted in values. Values are psychological variables that
characterize people within the same culture. Differences in
values indicate differences among cultures, such as differences
in thinking, acting, perceiving, understanding of attitudes,
motivations, and human needs.
3) Value system
A value system is an organization of beliefs concerning
preferable ways of behavior or end-states of existence along a
continuum of their relative importance. Changes in values
affect people’s thoughts, beliefs, and actions.
Theories of International tourism
2. Culture values
4) Value orientation
value orientation refers to “complex but…patterned-rank
ordered principles…which give…direction to the …human acts
…the solution of common human problems”.
5) Types of values
(1) Instrumental values are preferable modes or means of
behavior.
(2) Terminal values are goals(salvation, world peace, freedom,
comfortable life, true friendship).
Ambitious(hard working, aspiring)  A comfortable life
(a prosperous life)
Theories of International tourism
2. Culture values
6) Classification of values
Primary values are what is worth the sacrifice of human life,
or worth dying for(freedom). Secondary values are not strong
enough for the sacrifice of human life(fair opportunity). Tertiary
values are at the bottom of the value hierarchy(hospitality).
7) Measurement and analysis of values
Allport-Vernon-Lindzey’s (AVL) Test
Rokeach Value Survey(RVS)
Each measuring method (direct/indirect, surveys,
ranking/rating) has its own advantage and disadvantages.
Theories of International tourism
2. Culture values
8) Value studies in tourism
Shih(1986): Values, Attitudes, and Lifestyle (VALS) technique
Pitts & Woodside(1986): ‘a value profile’ of each group
Pizam & Calantone(1987): a value scale related to tourist
attraction
Muller(1991): different segments of American tourists
Madgrigal & Kahle(1994): differences in vacation activity
preference
9) Cultural value dimension
The different cultural value dimensions indicate how the
major cultural differences may influence the social relations
between international culturally different tourists and hosts.
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Parsons(1951)
Differentiated cultures according to choices an
individual makes prior to engaging in action
Universalism-particularism Modes of categorizing people or objects
(general/specific)
Ascription-achievement
Ways of treating people or objects in terms of
qualities ascribed to them (inherent/
measurable results)
Diffuseness-specificity
Types of responses to people or objects
(holistic/particular)
Affectivity-affective
neutrality
The degree to which people seek gratification
and express emotions (immediate/self-restraint)
Instrumental-expressive
Nature of the goals people seek in interaction
with others(means to another goal/an end goal)
Self-collective orientation
Individual/group needs
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Kluckhohn & Strodbeck(1961) Differentiated cultures on the basis of
orientation towards:
Human nature
Human beings may be perceived as good, a
mixture of good and evil, or evil;
changeable, unchangeable
Nature
Human may be subjected to nature, live in
harmony with nature, or control nature
Activity
Cultures may be ‘being’, ‘being-inbecoming’, or ‘doing’
Time
Past, present, and future
Relationship among people
Individual (the individual goals take
primacy over group goals), collateral
(group relationship), linear (hierarchical
relationship)
Space
Public, private, mixed
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Stewart(1971)
Differentiated cultures according to orientation
towards the world and people
Activity orientation
How people view actions and how they express
themselves through activities
(being/becoming/doing)
Social relation orientation
How people relate to one another
(formal/informal, egalitarian/hierarchical,
direct/indirect)
Self-orientation
How people view themselves, what motivates
their actions, who is valued and respected
(group/self-orientation,
changeable/not changeable)
World orientation
How people locate themselves in relation to the
spiritual world and nature (subjugation to
nature/living in harmony with nature/
controlling nature
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Hall(1976, 1977, 1983)
Differentiated cultures on the basis of different
communication styles
Context
The level of information included in a
communication message (low/high context)
Information flow
The structure and speed of messages between
individuals (covert/overt message)
Language
High context cultures (LCC) versus
low context culture (HCC)
Space
Ways of communicating through handling of
personal space (public/private)
Time
Different perceptions and orientations towards
time (monochronic cultures (MTC) versus
Polychronic cultures (PTC))
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Hall (1960, 1966, 1973),
Hall & Hall (1987)
Differentiated cultures on the basis of
orientation towards the world and people
Human nature
Agreements (spoken/written)
Human relationship
Amount of space, possessions, friendship,
communication
Relation to time
Past/future; monochrmic/polychromic
Activity orientation
Change is desirable/risky
Space orientation
Public/private
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Hofstede (1980, 2001),
Hofstede & Bond (1984)
Differentiated cultures on the basis of cultural
dimensions such as:
Power distance
(PDI)
The extent to which society accepts social
inequality
Uncertainty avoidance
(UAI)
The extent to which people feel threatened by
ambiguous situations
Individualism-collectivism
(IDV)
The extent to which individual goals and needs
take primacy over group goals and needs
Masculinity-femininity
(MAS)
The extent to which people value work and
achievement versus quality of life and
harmonious human relations; the extent to
which gender roles are differentiated
Long-short term orientation The extent to which the Chinese values apply
(LTO)
in the country in which they reside (long-term
time orientation)
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Argyle (1986)
Differentiated cultures according to the degree of
formality and physical contact between people
Formality
Formal/informal cultures
Touch
Contact/non-contact cultures
Bond & Chinese culture
connection (1987)
Confucian work dynamism
The extent to which countries act according to
Confucian philosophy
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Schein (1992)
Differentiated cultures according to orientation
towards the world and people
Human nature
Evil/good/mixed
Relations with nature Control/harmony/subjugation
Human activity
Doing/being/being-in-becoming, work/family/personal
Human relationships
Individualism/groupism, participation and
involvement, role relationships
Time
Planning/development, discretionary time horizons
(function/occupation/rank), temporal symmetry,
pacing; past/present/near or far-future;
monochronic/polychronic
Reality and truth
Physical/social/individual; high/low context,
moralism/pragmatism
Space
Intimacy/personal/social/public; high/low status
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Triandis (1994)
Differentiated cultures according to constraints placed
on people’s behavior
Structural tightness The degree to which the norms, rules and constraints
are placed on people’s behavior (tight/loose)
Maznevski (1994)
Differentiated cultures according to orientation
towards the world and people
Human nature
Good/evil, changeable
Nature
Subjugation/mastery/harmony
Activity
Doing/being, containing and controlling
Human relationships Individual/collective, hierachical
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Trompenaars (1984, 1993) Differentiated cultures according to orientation
Trompenaars &
towards the world and people
Hampden-Turner (1994)
Human nature
Universalism/particularism
Nature
Internal/external, inner/outer directed
Activity
Achievement/ascription, analyzing/integrating
Human relationships
Individualism/collectivism and
communitarianism, equality/hierarchy;
affective/neutral
time
Sequential/ synchronic, past/present/future
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Schneider & Barsoux Differentiated cultures on the basis of relationships
(1997)
with the environment (external adaptation) and
relationships among people (internal adaption)
Relationship with
nature
Control, uncertainty avoidance
Human activity
Doing/being; achievement/ascription
Human nature
Good/evil
Human relationships
Social/task orientation; particularism/ universalism;
hierarchical; individualism/collectivism
Space
Personal/physical
Language
High/low context
Time
Monochronic/polychronic; past/present/future
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Inglehart (1997)
Differentiated cultures based on the
understanding the major political or religious
influences that affect them
Traditionalism-seculiarism
The extent to which people obey traditional
(religious) authority versus secularism
Survival-well being
The extent to which people value the welfare
state, hard work and sacrifice versus quality
of life and self-expression
Theories of International tourism
2-9 Cultural value dimension
Minkov (2007)
Differentiated cultures based on the ability to
feel unique, enjoy life and be flexible
Exclusionism-universalism
The extent to which people can describe
themselves in unique versus universal
categories
Indulgence-restraint
The extent to which people feel able to enjoy
their lives
Monumentalismself-effacement
The extent to which society rewards flexibility
and humility
Theories of International tourism