Download Career Counseling in Trinidad and Tobago

Career Counseling
Charlene M. Alexander, Ph.D.
Ball State University
History of Career
Counseling
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Guidance and Counseling emerged in the 1920s for the primary purpose of
assisting students with occupational selection and placement
The National Defense Education Act of 1956 (NDEA) provided funding for
secondary school counselors who were required to have expertise in college
admissions and skills to help students resolve personal problems that might be
a barrier to academic success.
Guidance and Counseling have been used interchangeably since the terms
were first introduced more than fifty years ago. Robert Mathewson (1949) is
credited as being the first writer to use the term developmental guidance in the
school counseling literature.
The terms vocational, occupation, and job are also used interchangeably.
Career refers to the activities and positions involved in vocations, occupations,
and jobs as well as to related activities associated with an individual’s lifetime
work.
Career Counseling
Theories
Historical
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Trait and factor Theory
Personal-Environment-Correspondence Counseling
Developmental Theories
Ann Roe: A Needs Approach
John Holland: A Typology Approach
Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling and
Sociological Perspective of Work and Career Development
Trait and Factor Theory
• Trait and Factor means to match the individual’s traits with the
requirements of a specific occupation. Proponents of this theory
were Parsons (1909) and Williamson, (1939, 1965)
• This theory evolved from early studies of individual differences
and developed closely with the testing or psychometric
movement
• The Key characteristic of this theory is the assumption that
individuals have unique patterns of ability or traits that can be
objectively measured and correlated with the requirements of
various types of jobs
• Critics of the theory argue that it is a static theory rather than a
developmental one. It does not account for how interest, values,
aptitudes, achievement and personalities grow.
Personal-EnvironmentCorrespondence (PEC)Counseling
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This theory has a long history and as late as the 1990s it was referred
to as the theory of work adjustment.
This theory explores how individuals interact in their everyday lives as
well as how they interact in the work environment.
The main points of this theory are:
– Work personality and work environment should be amenable
– Individual needs and most important in determining an individual’s fit into
the work environment.
– Individual needs and the reinforcer system that characterizes the work
setting are important aspects of stability and tenure and
– Job placement is best accomplished through a match of worker traits with
the requirements of a work environment.
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Research suggest a strong relationship between job satisfaction and
work adjustment
Critics argue that it is difficult for counselors to identify occupational
reinforces because of the lack of relevant research in this area.
Developmental Theories
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The assumptions of these developmental theories are similar to those
of the trait-and factor approach but the primary assumption is that
career development is a process that takes place over the life span
Ginzberg and Associates identified 3 stages of career development:
fantasy, tentative, and realistic.
Fantasy: (before age 11). Purely play orientation in the initial stage;
near end of this stage, play becomes work-oriented
Tentative: (ages 11-17). Transitional process marked by gradual
recognition of work requirements; recognition of interest, abilities, work
rewards, values, and time perspective.
Realistic: Middle adolescence (ages 17 to young adult). Integration of
capacities and interest: further development of values; specification of
occupational choice; crystallization of occupational patterns
The Life-Span, Life-Space Approach
to Careers
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Developed by Donald Super. Self-concept theory is a vital part of
Super’s approach to vocational behavior. Five vocational
developmental stages were identified:
Growth: (birth to age 14 or 15), characterized by development of
capacity, attitudes, interests, and needs associated with self-concepts.
Exploratory: (ages 15-24), characterized by a tentative phase on which
choices are narrowed but not finalized
Establishment: (ages 25-44), characterized by trial and stabilization
through work experiences.
Maintenance (ages 45-64). Characterized by a continual adjustment
process to improve working position and situation
Decline: (ages 65+), characterized by pre retirement considerations,
reduced work output, and eventual retirement.
The Life-Span, Life-Space Approach
to Careers (Cont.)
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Crystallization: 14-18, a cognitive process period of formulating a
general vocational goal through awareness of resources,
contingencies, interests, values, and planning for the preferred
occupation
Specification: 18-21, a period of moving from tentative vocational
preferences toward a specific vocational preference
Implementation: 21-24, a period of completing training for vocational
preference and entering employment
Stabilization: 24-35, a period of confirming a preferred career by actual
work experience and use of talents to demonstrate career choice as
an appropriate one
Consolidation 35+, A period of establishment in a career by
advancement, status, and seniority
Ann Roe: A Needs Approach
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Ann Roe (1956) explores early relationships within the family and their
subsequent effects on career direction.
Her main trust was to analyze differences in personality, aptitude,
intelligence and background as related to career choice.
She emphasized that early childhood experiences (frustrations and
satisfactions) play an important role in finding satisfaction in one’s
chosen field.
Roe classified occupations into two major categories: Personal oriented and nonperson-oriented. Roe believed that those who choose
to work in person oriented occupations were reared by warm and
accepting parents and those who avoid contact with others were
reared by cold or rejecting parents
John Holland : A Typology Approach
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Holland (1992) believes that individuals are attracted to a given career
by their particular personalities and numerous variables that constitute
their back-grounds.
Holland proposed six kinds of modal occupational environments and
six matching modal personal orientations: Realistic (R), Investigative
(I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C).
Holland proposed that personality types can be arranges in a coded
system according to dominant combinations.
Four basic assumptions underlying Holland’s (1992) theory:
– Most people can be categorized as one of the six types.
– There are six kinds of environments;
– People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and
abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable
problems and roles.
– A person’s behavior is determined by an interaction between his
personality and the characteristics of his environment
John Holland : A Typology Approach
(cont.)
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Holland introduces five key concepts to explain the model
Consistency : relates to personality as well as to environment. Some
types have more in common with others, e.g social and artistic have
more in common than investigative and enterprising.
Differentiation : Individuals who fit a pure personality type will express
little resemblance to other types. Conversely, those individuals who fit
several personality types have poorly defined personality styles and
are considered undifferentiated or poorly defined.
Identity : describes those individuals who have a clear and stable
picture of their goals, interest, and talents. Individuals who have many
occupational goals, as opposed to a few, have low identity.
Congruence : occurs when an individual’s personality type matches
the work environment.
Calculus: the relationship between types of occupational environments
lend themselves to research.
Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of
Career Development
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Krumboltz (1975) first proposed a social learning approach to career
decision making. Now known as the Learning Theory of Career
Counseling (LTCC).
LTCC suggest the following four factors contribute to career
development:
– Genetic endowments and special abilities ( inherited qualities that may set
limits on the individual)
– Environmental conditions and events ( events beyond the individual’s
control, government policies etc.)
– Learning experiences (these are experiences learned through reactions to
consequences and negative and positive reactions to pairs of previously
neutral situations, e.g. all politicians are dishonest)
– Task approach skills (these are skills the individual has developed, e.g.
problem solving skills, work habits, emotional responses)
Sociological Perspective of Work
and Career Development
• Developed by Blau, Gustad, Jessor, Parnes, and Wilcox (1956).
• This theory suggest that the effects of social institutions on
career choice and development is due in part to the
interrelationship of psychological, economic and sociological
determinants of occupational choice and development.
• Individual characteristics that are responsible for choice are
biologically determined and socially conditioned through family
influences, social position, and developed social-role
characteristics.
Sociological Perspective of Work
and Career Development (cont.)
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Factors Influencing the Sociological Perspective
Status Attainment Theory: Parental status greatly affects the
occupational level of their children.
Sociology of Labor Markets: institutional practices rather than
individual career aspirations shape career outcomes
Race and Gender Effects: Women tend to be concentrated in a narrow
band of occupations that pay less than men earn.
School Processes: Ability grouping and tracking of students mirrors the
larger society and inhibits student development.
Youth Competence and Outcomes of Youth Work: Adolescent
competence regarding mastery of behavior during high school years
greatly influences later educational attainment, career stability and
marital status.
Family Effects: No relationship found between maternal employment
and the child’s social behavior
Work Commitment:The stronger the intrinsic rewards, and match to
workers abilities leads to greater worker attachment.
Theories of Career Development II
Current Theories
• Career Development from a Cognitive Information Processing
Perspective
• Career Development from a Social Cognitive Perspective
• Brown’s Values-Based, Holistic Model of Career and Life-Role
Choices and Satisfaction
• A Contextual Explanation of Career and
• Self-Efficacy Theory
Cognitive Information Processing
(CIP) Perspective
• CIP theory was developed by Peterson
Sampson, and Reardon (1991).
• Refers to how individual make a career
decision and use information in career
problem solving and decision making.
Major assumptions of CIP
• Career choice results from an interaction of cognitive and
affective processes
• Making career choices is a problem-solving activity
• The capabilities of career problem solvers depend on the
availability of cognitive operations as well as knowledge
• Career problem solving is a high-memory-load task
• Motivation to make satisfying career choices through a better
understanding of world and self is critical
• Career development involves continual growth and change in
knowledge structures
Major Assumptions of CIP
• Career identity depends on self-knowledge
• Career maturity depends on one’s ability to
solve career problems
• The ultimate goal of career counseling is
achieved by facilitating the growth of
information-processing skills
• The ultimate aim of career counseling is to
enhance the client’s capabilities as a career
problem solver and as a decision maker
Career development from a social
cognitive career perspective (SCCT)
• Developed by Lent, Brown, and Hackett
(1996)
• Goals are:
– Find methods of defining specific
mediators from which learning
experiences shape and subsequently
influence career behaviors.
– Attend to:
• Personal and physical attributes
• External environmental factors
• Overt behaviors
National Standards for
Career Development
• Standard A: Students will acquire the skills to investigate the
world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make
informed career decisions
• Standard B: Students will employ strategies to achieve future
career success and satisfaction
• Standard C: Students will understand the relationship between
personal qualities, education and training, and the world of work.
Career Development: Standard A
Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of
work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed
career decisions
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Student Competencies
Develop Career Awareness, Students will:
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Develop skills to locate, evaluate, and interpret career information
Learn about the variety of traditional and non-traditional occupations
Develop an awareness of personal abilities, skills, interest, and motivations
Learn how to interact and work cooperatively in teams
Learn to make decisions
Learn how to set goals
Understand the importance of planning
Pursue and develop competency in areas of interest
Develop hobbies and vocational interests
Balance between work and leisure time
Career Development: Standard A
Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of
work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed
career decisions
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Student Competencies
Develop Employment Readiness, Students will:
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Acquire employability skills such as working on a team, problem-solving and
organizational skills
Apply job readiness skills to seek employment opportunities
Demonstrate knowledge about the changing workplace
Learn about the rights and responsibilities of employers and employees
Learn to respect the rights and responsibilities of employers and employees
Learn how to write a resume
Develop a positive attitude toward work and learning
Understand the importance of responsibility, dependability, punctuality, integrity, and
effort in the workplace
Utilize time and task management skills
Career Development: Standard B
Students will employ strategies to achieve future career
goals with success and satisfaction
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Student Competencies
Acquire Career Information, Students will:
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Apply decision-making skills to career planning, course selection , and career transitions
Identify personal skills, interest, and abilities and relate them to current career choices
Demonstrate knowledge of the career planning process
Know the various ways which occupations can be classified
Use research and information resources to obtain career information
Learn to use the Internet to access career planning information
Describe traditional and non-traditional occupations and how these relate to career choice
Understand how changing economic and societal needs influence employment trends and future
training
Career Development: Standard B
Students will employ strategies to achieve future career
goals with success and satisfaction
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Student Competencies
Identify Career Goals, Students will:
– Demonstrate awareness of the education and training needed to
achieve career goals
– Assess and modify their educational plan to support career goals
– Use employability and job readiness skills in internship, mentoring,
shadowing, and/or other world of work experiences
– Select course work that is related to career interests
– Maintain a career planning portfolio
Career Development: Standard C
Students will understand the relationship between personal
qualities, education, training, and the world of work
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Student Competencies
Acquire Knowledge to Achieve Career Goals, Students will:
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Understand the relationship between educational achievement and career success
Explain how work can help to achieve personal success and satisfaction
Identify personal preferences and interest which influence career choices and success
Understand that the chainging workplace requires learning and acquiring new skills
Describe the effect of work on lifestyles
Understand the importance of equity and access in career choice
Understand that work is an important and satisfying means of personal expression
Career Development: Standard C
Students will understand the relationship between personal
qualities, education, training, and the world of work
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Student Competencies
Apply Skills to Achieve Career Goals,
Students will:
– Demonstrate how interest, abilities, and achievement relate to achieving
personal, social, educational, and career goals
– Learn how to use conflict management skills with peers and adults
– Learn to work cooperatively with others as a team member
– Apply academic and employment readiness skills in work-based learning
situations such as internships, shadowing, and/or mentoring experiences
Outline of The Career Intake
Interview
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Current Status Information
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General Appearance
Attitude and behavior
Affect and Mood
Demographic Information
Volunteer/Work Experience
Medical History
Educational History
Family History
Outline of The Career Intake
Interview (con.t)
II. Discovering the student’s understanding of life Roles and Potential
Conflicts
A. Worker Role
B. Homemaker- Spouse, Parent
C. Leisure Role
D. Citizen Role
III. Identify problems that may Interfere with Career Development
A. Problems in living
B. Behaviors that can lead to Work Maladjustment
C. Faulty Cognitions
D. Memory and Persistence
Outline of The Career Intake
Interview (CONT.)
IV. Developing Goals and Objectives
A. Identify Student Goals
B. Determine the Feasibility of Goals
C. Establishing Sub-Goals
D. Assessing Commitment to Goals
Planning for Life Strategies
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“Planning for Life” is a national program that recognizes outstanding
career counseling programs. The specific elements are:
– Clarity of purpose is the sharing of the program’s purpose with school,
family, business, and community
– Commitment suggest that an investment of resources from all parts of the
community is essential
– Comprehensiveness ensures that the program addresses all participants in
the community with all career and educational opportunities
– Collaboration refers to the degree to which schools, family, business, and
community share program ownership
– Coherence is the term used to make certain that there is a documented
plan for all students.
– Coordination is the degree to which the program in interdisciplinary and
career planning is developmental
– Competency is proof of student attainment
Career and College Exploration Programs
Career Week Speaker Profile
Speaking Outline
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Introduce yourself with name and title
Describe what you do. Use stories or examples to relate details of every-day work. If
you have a visible job that students may already know something about, tell something
about your job that might surprise them.
Describe your working conditions including the physical setting, dress requirements,
hours, pay range, and availability of similar positions
Relate how you became interested in this occupation
Discuss ways these students might explore a possible interest in your field, such as
classes to take, volunteering, internships, shadowing, and others
Tell about related careers in your field, including those with different educational
requirements
Career Information on the Internet
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www.advisorteam.com- The Keirsey Temperament Sorter
http://icpac.indiana.edu/exercises/merklerex.xml Merkler Style
Preference Inventory Scavenger hunt
www.career net. Org www.bls.gov U.S. Bureau of Labor statistics
www.bls.gov/oco/- Occupational Outlook Handbook
http://stats.bls.gov/oco/oco2003.htm Tomorrow’s jobs
http://jobsmart.org/tools/career Jobstar Guides for Specific Careers
www.udel.edu/csc/mrk.html University of Delaware-choosing a major
in college
www.monster.com Job search
www.pbs.org/jobs Kids and Careers
www.how-to-study.com
www.thecircuit.org
www.usnews.com/usnews/nych/work/wocciss.htm- Campbell Interest
and Skills Survey