Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download 专 业 英 语 复 习 题 整理人：王华敏 化合物的英文命名 Nomenclature
Document related concepts
Transcript
专 业 英 语 复 习 题 整理人：王华敏 化合物的英文命名 Nomenclature of compounds 一 无机物的命名 (Inorganic compounds) 1 元素与单质的命名 “元素”和“单质”的英文意思都是“element”，有时为了区别，在强调“单质”时可用 “free element” 。因此，单质的英文名称与元素的英文名称是一样的。下面给出的既是元素 的名称，同时又是单质的名称。 S-block Element IA IIA H Hydrogen Be Beryllium Li Na Rb Cs Fr Lithium Sodium Rubidium Cesium Francium Mg K Ca Sr Ba Ra Magnesium Potassium Calcium Strontium Barium Radium P-block Element IIIA IV A B Boron Al Aluminium Ga Gallium In Indium Tl Thallium C VA Carbon Si N Silicon Ge P Germanium Sn Pb As Phosphorus Arsenic Tin Sb Lead VIA Nitrogen Antimony Bi Bismuth VIIA 0 He O Oxygen S Sulfur Se Selenium Te Tellurium F Fluorine Cl Ne Chlorine Br Bromine I Iodine Ar Kr Neon Argon Krypton Xe Xenon Helium Po Polonium At Astatine Rn Radon Common Transition Elememt Fe : Mn : Cu: Zn: Hg: Ag: Au: iron manganese copper zinc mercury silver gold 2 化合物的命名 化合物的命名顺序都是根据化学式从左往右读，这与中文读法顺序是相反的。表示原子个 数 时 使 用 前 缀 (1)mono-,(2)di -,(3)tri- ,(4)tetra – ,(5)penta(6)hexa-,(7)hepta-, (8)octa-,(9)nona-,(10)deca-,但是在不会引起歧义时，这些前缀都尽可能被省去 Naming metal ions (cations) for metal oxides, bases and salts 1. Single valence ions Cation’s name = Element for example: Na+ Sodium Al3+ K+ Potassium Ca2+ Aluminum Calcium 2.Multivalence ions Cation’s name = Element(N) For example: Fe2+ Iron(II) or Ferrous Fe3+ Iron(III) or Ferric Cr2+ Chromium(II) Cr3+ Chromium(III) Mn4+ Manganese(IV) Mn2+ Manganese(II) 对于有变价的金属元素，除了可用前缀来表示以外，更 多采用罗马数字来表示金属的氧化 态，或用后缀-ous 表示低价，-ic 表示高价。 如 FeO: iron(II) oxide 或 ferrous oxide Fe2O3: iron (III) oxide 或 ferric oxide Cu2O: copper(I) oxide 或 cuprous oxide CuO: copper(II) oxide 或 cupric oxide chromous chromic mercurous mercuric manganous manganic cobaltous cobaltic stannous stannic Plumbous plumbic Table1 symbols and names of common cations 1+cations 2+cations 2+cations 3+and 4+ cations hydrogen H+ / magnesium Mg2+ / nickel(II)or Ni2+ / aluminum Al3+ lithium Li+ / calcium Ca2+ / nickelous /chromium(III) Cr3+ sodium Na+ / strontium Sr2+ / tin(II)or Sn2+ / or chromic potassium K+ / barium Ba2+ / stannous /manganese(III) Mn3+ ammonium NH4+ / zinc Zn2+ / lead(II)or Pb2+ /or manganic silver Ag+ / cadmium Cd2+ / plumbous / iron(III)or Fe3+ copper(I)or Cu+ / copper(II)or Cu2+ / iron(II)or Fe2+ / ferric cuprous / cupric / ferrous / cobalt(III)or Co3+ mercury(I)or Hg22+ / mercury(II)or Hg2+ / cobalt(II)or Co2+ / cobaltic mercurous / mercuric / cobaltous / /nickel(III) Ni3+ chromium(II)or Cr2+/ / tin(IV)or Sn4+/ chromous / / stannic / manganese(II)or Mn2+ / / lead(IV)or Pb4+/ manganous / / plumbic/ Naming nonmetal ions (anions) 1. Monatomic anions Anion’s name = Element’s root -ide For example: ClChloride O= Oxide BrBromide OHHydroxide IIodide CNCyanide S= Sulfide HHydride 2. Polyatomic oxyanions (1). Acid radicals for normal salt (正酸根 -ate ) Anion’s name = Central Element’s root -ate for example: ClO3Chlorate IO3- Iodate PO43SO42- Phosphate Sulfate NO3Nitrate CO32- Carbonate (2). Acid radicals for meta-salts (亚酸根 -ite ) Anion’s name = Central element’s root -ite for example: ClO2Chlorite IO2Iodite PO33Phosphite NO2- Nitrite SO32Sulfite (3). Acid radicals for hypo-salts (次酸根 -ite ) Anion’s name = Hypo- Central element’s root -ite for example: ClOHypochlorite IOHypoiodite PO23Hypophosphite (4). Acid radicals for persalts (高酸根 Per -ate ) Anion’s name = Per-central Element’s root -ate for example: ClO4Perchlorate IO4Periodate MnO4Permanganate Table2 symbols and names of common anions 1- anions 1- anions 3- and 4- anions peroxide O22- / thiocyanate nitride N3 hydride phosphide fluoride carbide H- / cyanide 2- anions SCN- CN- / oxide /sulfide O2- / S2- / P3F- / acetate CHCOO- / carbonate CO32- / C4- chloride /Phosphate PO43- bromide /phosphite PO33- iodide Cl- Br- I- / / nitrate nitrite NO3- NO2- /sulfate /sulfite / permanganate MnO4- / thiosulfate S2O32- SO42- SO32- hydroxide OH/ perchlorate ClO4/oxalate C2O42hydrogen carbonate HCO3/chlorate ClO3/chromate CrO42(bicarbonate) / chlorite ClO2/ dichromate Cr2O72hydrogen sulfate HSO4/ hypochlorite ClO(bisulfate) hydrogen sulfiteHSO3dihydrogen phosphate (bisulfite) Naming compounds 1. Metal oxide Metal oxide = Cation + oxide for example: FeO Iron(II) oxide (Ferrous oxide) Fe2O3 Iron(III) oxide (Ferric oxide) Na2O2 Sodium peroxide hydrogen peroxide(H2O2) 2. Nonmetal oxide Nonmetal oxide = n-Nonmetal element + n-oxide for example: CO Carbon monoxide CO2 Carbon dioxide SO3 Sulfur trioxide N2O3 Dinitrogen trioxide P2O5 Diphosphorus pentoxide N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide (tetra-,mono-后缀中的 a,o 在后一 o 之前省去) 有些物质常用俗称,如 NO: nitric oxide N2O: nitrous oxide Table3 Binary compounds of nonmetals --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Carbon nitrogen CO carbon monoxide NO nitrogen monoxide CO2 Carbon dioxide NO2 nitrogen dioxide CS2 Carbon disulfide N2O dinitrogen monoxide CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride N2O3 dinitrogen trioxide N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide Sulfur phosphorus SO2Sulfur dioxide PBr3phosphorus tribromide SO3 Sulfur trioxide SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride PCl5phosphorus pentachloride 非金属氢化物 除了水和氨气使用俗称 water，ammonia 以外，其它的非金属氢化物都用系统名称，命名 规则根据化学式的写法不同而有所不同。 （1）对于卤族和氧族氢化物，Ｈ在化学式中写在前面，因此将其看成与另一元素的二元 化合物。 举例： HF hydrogen fluoride HCl hydrogen chloride HBr hydrogen bromide HI hydrogen iodide H2S hydrogen sulfide H2Se hydrogen selenide H2Te hydrogen telluride （2）对于其它族的非金属氢化物，Ｈ在化学式中写在后面，可加后缀-ane，氮族还可加 -ine 举例： PH3: phosphine 或 phosphane AsH3: arsine 或 arsane SbH3: stibine 或 stibane (stibium) BiH3: bismuthane CH4: methane SiH4: silane B2H6: diborane hydrazine(N2H4) 无氧酸 命名规则：hydro-词根-ic acid 举例： HCl: hydrochloric acid H2S : hydrosulfuric acid 3. Bases Base = Metal cation + hydroxide for example: Al(OH)3 Aluminum hydroxide NaOH Sodium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide Co(OH)2 Cobalt(II) hydroxide 4.盐(Salts) (1). 正盐(Normal salt) ：根据化学式从左往右分别读出阳离子和阴离子的名称。 Normal salt = Cation + anion for example: HgSO4 Mercury(II) sulfate Hg2SO4 Mercury(I) sulfate KNO3 Potassium nitrate Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate NaClO Sodium hypochlorite FeSO4 iron(II) sulfate KMnO4 potassium permanganate (1). 正盐(Normal salt) ：根据化学式从左往右分别读出阳离子和阴离子的名称。 Normal salt = Cation + anion for example: HgSO4 Mercury(II) sulfate Hg2SO4 Mercury(I) sulfate KNO3 Potassium nitrate Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate NaClO Sodium hypochlorite FeSO4 iron(II) sulfate KMnO4 potassium permanganate (3).Basic salts Basic salt = Cation + hydroxy-anion for example: Cu2(OH)2CO3 Dicopper(II) dihydroxycarbonate Ca(OH)Cl Calcium hydroxychloride Mg(OH)PO4 Magnesium hydroxyphosphate (4).复盐(Mixed salts)：同正盐的读法。 Mixed salt = Cation + cation’ + anion for example: NaKSO3 Sodium potassium sulfite CaNH4PO4 Calcium ammonium phosphate AgLiCO3 Silver lithium carbonate NaNH4SO4 Sodium ammonium sulfate KNaCO3: potassuim sodium carbonate NaNH4HPO4: sodium ammonium hydrogenphosphate 5)水合盐：结晶水读做 water 或 hydrate 如 AlCl3∙6H2O: aluminum chloride 6-water 或 aluminum chloride hexahydrate AlK(SO4)2∙12H2O: aluminium potassium sulfate 12-water 5. Acids (1). Per-, hydro-,normal acid (its salt-ate,-ide) Acid = Central element’s root -ic + acid for example: H2CO3 Carbonic acid H2SO4 Sulfuric acid H3PO4 Phosphoric acid HNO3 Nitric acid HClO4 Perchloric acid HCl Hydrochloric acid (2). Meta- and hypo-acid ( its salt-ite) Acid = Central element’s root -ous + acid for example: H2SO3 Sulfurous acid H3PO3 Phosphorous acid HNO2 Nitrous acid HClO Hypochlorous acid HClO2 Chlorous acid 含氧酸与含氧酸根阴离子 采用前后缀的不同组合显示不同价态的含氧酸和含氧酸根阴离子，价态相同的含氧酸及含氧 酸根阴离子具有相同的前缀，不同的后缀。 高某酸 per-ic 正酸 –ic 亚酸 -ous 次酸 hypo-ous 高某酸根 per-ate 正酸根 –ate 亚酸根 -ite 次酸根 hypo-ite 其它的前缀还有 ortho-正 meta- 偏 thio-硫代 举例： HClO4 perchloric acid ClO4perchlorate ion HClO3 chloric acid ClO3chlorate ion HClO2 chlorous acid ClO2chlorite ion HClO hypochlorous acid ClOhypochlorite ion H2SO4 sulfuric acid H2SO3 sulfurous acid HNO3 nitric acid HNO2 nitrous acid HPO3 metaphosphoric acid S2O32thiosulfate ion 络合物的命名（Naming coordination complex） 命名时先命名阳离子部分，最后命名阴离子部分，阴离子配体以字母顺序列出，中心阳离 子价态一般以罗马数字在名称后标出。 K[BF4] potassium tetrafluoroborate(III) K4[Fe(CN)6] potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 Tetraamminecopper(II) sulfate [Co(H2O)2(NH3)2(CO2)]NO3 Diammine diaquacarbonatocobalt(III)nitrate Naming coordination complex 1. Ligands (1). Negative ions as ligands Ligand = Element’s root -o for example: CN- Cyano FFluoro ClChloro NO2NO3CO3= Nitro Nitrato Carbonato Br- Bromo O= Oxo OH- Hydroxo (2). Neutral molecules as ligand Ligand = Radical name for example: NH3 CO H2O CH3NH2 H2NCCNH2 CH3COO- Acetato H-O2CCO2Oxalato Hydrido Ammine Carbonyl Aqua Methylamine Ethylenediamine 2. Complex ions (1). Neutral complex or complex ions with positive charge Complex ion = n-Ligand-metal ion(N) for example: Ag(NH3)2+ Diamminesilver(I) Cu(NH3)42+ Tetraamminecopper(II) [Co(NH3)3(NO2)3] Triamminetrinitrocobalt(III) 常见配体的名称 ions molecules CN- cyano H2O aqua OH- hydroxo NH3 ammine CH3COO- acetato CO carbonyl NO3- nitrato CH3NH2 methylamine NO2- nitro F- fluoro Cl- chloro Br- bromo CO32- carbonato (2).Complex ions with negative charge Complex ion =n-Ligand-metal’s root-ate(N) for example: [Fe(CN)6]4Hexafluoroferrate(II) [BF4]Tetrafluoroborate(III) [AlF6]3Hexafluoroaluminate(III) [AuCl4]Tetrachloroaurate(III 3.Naming complex Complex = Cation + anion for example: Li[AlH4] Lithium tetrahydroaluminate(III) [Ag(NH3)2]Cl Diamminesilver(I) chloride K4[Fe(CN)6] Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 Tetraamminecopper(II) sulfate Ni(CO)4 Tetracarbonylnickel(0) Answer H2SO4 sulfuric acid HCl hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric acid HNO3 nitric acid HNO2 nitrous acid HCN hydrogen cyanide or hydrocyanic acid Na2S sodium sulfide CuSO4 copper (II) sulfate or cupric sulfate Fe(NO3)3 iron (III) nitrate or ferric nitrate HClO4 perchloric acid KCN potassium cyanide NH4Cl ammonium chloride NaClO sodium hypochlorite NaOH sodium hydroxide Mn(OH)2 Manganese(II) hydroxide Fe2O3 iron(III) oxide or ferric oxide P2O5 Diphosphorus pentoxide H2O2 hydrogen peroxide K2Cr2O7 potassium dichromate Cu2(OH)2CO3 Dicopper(II) dihydroxycarbonate CaHPO4 calcium hydrogen phosphate PtCl42- tetrachloroplatinum(II) [Ag(NH3)2]Cl Diamminesilver(I) chloride K4[Fe(CN)6] Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) 二 有机物的命名 1 烷烃（alkanes） 1.1 直链烷烃 烃类化合物的命名是有机命名的基础。英文名称除了含 1 到 4 个碳原子以 外，其余均用希腊文和拉丁文的数词加上相应的词尾（-ane）来命名，10 个碳原子以上的 则在数词前加前缀 un、do、tri、tetra、penta 等。 如：甲烷 methane 乙烷 ethane 丁烷 butane 戊烷 pentane 庚烷 heptane 辛烷 octane 癸烷 decane 十一烷 undecane 丙烷 propane 己烷 hexane 壬烷 nonane 十二烷 dodecane Alkane = Number prefix-ane for example: CH4 Methane CH3CH2CH3 Propane CH3CH3 Ethane CH3(CH2)2CH3 Butane CH3(CH2)3CH3 Pentane CH3(CH2)4CH3 Hexane CH3(CH2)5CH3 Heptane CH3(CH2)6CH3 Octane CH3(CH2)7CH3 Nonane CH3(CH2)8CH3 Decane 11~19Alkane = Number prefix-decane for example: 11-alkane Undecane 12-alkane Dodecane 13-alkane Tridecane 14-alkane Tetradecane 15-alkane Pentadecane 16-alkane Hexadecane 17-alkane Heptadecane 18-alkane Octadecane 19-alkane Nonadecane 20-alkane Icosane 21~29 Alkane = Number prefix-cosane for example: 21-alkane Henicosane 22-alkane Docosane 23-alkane Tricosane 24-alkane Tetracosane 25-alkane Pentacosane 30-Alkane Triacontane 31~39Alkane = Number prefix-triacontane for example: 31-Alkane Hentriacontane 32-Alkane Dotriacontane 33-Alkane Tritriacontane 34-Alkane Tetratriacontane 35-Alkane pentatriacontane 36-Alkane Hexatriacontane 40~90Alkane = Number prefix-contane for example: 40 Alkane Tetracontane 50 Alkane Pentacontane 60 Alkane Hexacontane 70 Alkane Heptacontane 80 Alkane Octacontane 90 Alkane Nonacontane 100 Alkane Hectane 1.2 含支链烷烃和烷基 命名含支链的烷烃时，可把它们视为直链烷烃，但分別是某些氢（hydrogen） 原子被称为烷基（alkyl groups）的原子取代。命名烷基时，只需把“基”（-yl）字加在相应 的烷烃的字首后。 如： CH3- Methyl CH3-(CH2)9-CH2Undecyl CH3-CH2-CH(CH3)-CH2-CH3 3- Methylpentane Univalent radicals Radical = Alk -yl for example: CH3CH3CH2CH3CH2CH2CH3(CH2)2CH2- Methyl Ethyl Propyl Butyl Saturated branched-chain hydrocarbon branched-chain hydrocarbon = n-Radical+alkane for example: C C C C 2-Methylbutane C C C C C 2,2-Dimethylpropane C C C C C C C C 4-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylheptane C C C C Univalent branched radicals Radical = Alk -yl for example: 4 3 2 1 C C C C 3-Methylbutyl C C C C C C C C C C C C C C 2-Methylpropyl sec-Butyl tert-Butyl 1.3 一些可采用普通命名的支链烷烃： (CH3)2CH-CH3 Isobutane (CH3)2CH-CH2-CH3 Isopentane (CH3)4C Neopentane (CH3)2CH-CH2-CH2-CH3 Isohexane 对取代的烷基也可以在相应的烃名前加“异” （iso-） 、“仲”(sec-)、“叔”（tert-） 、“新”（neo-） 等字命名。下面是一些符合条件的烷基，其系统命名和普通命名如下： (CH3)2CH-CH2-Methylpropyl Isobutyl CH3-CH2-CH(CH3)1-Methylpropyl sec-Butyl (CH3)3C1,1-Dimethylethyl tert-Butyl CH3-CH2-C(CH3)2- 1,1-Dimethylpropyl tert-pentyl (CH3)3C-CH22,2-Dimethylpropyl Neopentyl 1.4 复杂的烷烃 结构较复杂的烷烃不能用普通命名法命名，只能采用系统命名法。选最长 的碳链为主链，按相应的直链烷烃命名，从一端向另一端编号，支链作为取代基放在母体 名称前，编号时使支链的编号尽可能小且支链的排列按基团的字母顺序。 如: 3-Ethyl-2-methylhexane 4-ethyl-3,3-dimethylheptane 复杂的烷烃命名时须注意分子中有两个等长碳链时，按以下原则进行比较： 1）带支链数目较多者为主链，例如： 2,3,5-Trimethyl-4-propylheptane 2）支链定位号较小者为主链 4-Isobutyl-2,5-dimethylheptane 2 烯烃和炔烃（alkenes and alkynes） 2.1 命名 烯烃和炔烃命名时将相应的烷烃的词尾“烷”（ane）改为“烯”（ene）或“炔” （yne），名称前加上不饱和键的编号即可。当所带的双键或叁键不止一个时，可在前边加 上 di、tri、tetra 等数字来表示。有些简单的烯炔类化合物可用普通名称。例如： CH2=CH2 Ethene CH2=CHCH2CH2CH3 1-Pentene CH2=C=CH2 1,2-Propadiene Ethyne 1,3-Butadiyne Naming unsaturated hydrocarbon 2.1 Unbranched acyclic alkene Alkene = Number prefix-ene for example: C-C-C-C=C-C C-C=C C-C=C-C C-C-C-C=C 2-Hexene Propene 2-Butene 1-Pentene Poly-ene n-Alkene =Alk-a-n-ene n=2 n=3 n=4 for example: C-C=C-C=C-C=C C=C-C=C C-C=C-C=C -adiene -atriene -atetraene 1,3,5-Heptatriene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-Pentadiene C C C C C 2-Methyl-2-b utene C C C C C 2-Methyl-2,4-hexadiene C C C C C C C C C C C C C C 3-Ethyl-4-Methyyl-1,5-heptad iene C C C C C C 2-Methyl-2,4,6-o ctatriene Alkyne Alkyne = Alk-yne (-a-n-yne) C n=2 n=3 -adiyne -atriyne for exanmple: C C C Propyne C C C C C C C 2-Pentyne Ethyne (acetylene) C C C C 1,3-Butadiyne 烯炔的命名 烃类分子中同时含有双键和叁键时成为烯炔，命名时烯在前炔在后，双键的编号写 在前面，叁键的定位号写在表示炔烃词尾之前。例如： 2.2 1,3-Hexadien-5-yne 3-Penten-1-yne Unsaturated hydrocarbon with both double and triple bonds Alkenyne = Number prefix-en-yne Two ene + one yne -adien-?-yne Three ene+ one yne -atrien-?-yne One ene + two yne -en-?-diyne 2.3 不饱和烃基的命名 不饱和烃基的命名类似于饱和烃基，但需要标出不饱和键的位置。有些简单 的不饱和烃基可用俗名。例如: CH3-CH=CH1-Propenyl CH2=CH-CH=CH1,3-Butadienyl CH2=CHVinyl Ethynyl CH2=CH-CH2Allyl CH2=C(CH3)Isopropenyl 2-Propynyl 2-Penten-4-ynyl C C C C C CC C Ethynyl 2-Propynyl 1-Propenyl C C C C 1,3-Butadienyl C C C C C 2-Penten-4-ynyl 2.4 多价基的命名 1) 两个自由价在同一个碳原子上称为“亚”，英文词尾为“-ylidene”.例如： CH2= Methylene CH3CH= Ethylidene (CH3)2C= Isopropylidene 2) 两个自由价不在同一个碳原子上也称为“亚”，但需要标出定位号。例如： -CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2- Hexamethylene 3) 三个自由价在同一个碳原子上的称为次基，英文词尾为-ylidyne。例如： Ethylidyne Methylidyne Multivalent radicals Bivalent radical = univalent radical-idene (ene) Trivalent radical = univalent radical-idyne for example: CH CH3 CH CH3 C CH2 Methylidyne Ethylidene Ethylidyne Vinylidene C CH2 Methylene CH2 CH2 Ethylene CH2 CH2 CH2 T rimethylene CHCH2 CH3 P ro p ylene CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 T etramethylene 7.2 环氧化合物 Exercise 1 SO3H NH2 5 2 COOH COOCH2CH3 6 3 OH O C NH2 O C NH2 COOH COOH CH2OH COOH NO 7 NO 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 O C NH2 CHO CH2=CHCHCH2CH2OH NH2 HOOCCCH2CH2COOH O ClCHCH2CH2NH2 CH3 CH3CCH2CN O CH3CCH2CH2CHO O CH3COCH2CH2OCCH3 O O 8 O2N CH2OH HO O C Cl CHO 7 8 9 10 HO CHO OH O C NH2 NH2 O CCH3 CH3 N3 SO3H 3-Diazobenzenesulfonic acid COOH COOCH3 CHOO C NH2 2-Methoxycarbonylbenzoic acid 5-Formyl-1,3-cyclopentadienecarboxamide O C NH2 COOCH2CH3 Ethyl 2-Carbamoylbenzoate O HOCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CCH3 7-Hydroxy-2-heptanone • • 电子亲合势随原子半径的减小而增大. 氧和氟的电子亲合势分别比硫和氯的电子亲合势要小。 • Ionization energy concerns the loss of electrons. Electron affinity is a measure of the energy change that occurs when a gaseous atom gains an electron. • Although the IE of F is greater than that of Cl,the electron affinity of F is smaller partly because the smaller size of F- provides more repulsion from the added electron. 列举 • Noble Gases are exceptional in their reluctance to either gain or lose an electron ． Halide ions --because of their excess negative charge ， relative to the isoelectronic noble gas atoms—have both a lower ionization energy and a lesser electron affinity．On the other hand，noble gas cations have greater affinities and greater ionization energies than do isoelectronic halogen atoms. • • Na 失去一个电子形成钠离子。 氯得到一个电子形成氯离子 • In boron,the outermost electron ,a 2p ,has significantly higher energy than the filled 1s and 2s orbitals and is thus more easily lost than a 2s electron of Be. • Two of the Group IIIA elements have lower ionization energies than the preceding Group IIA elements,and several GroupVIA elements have lower ionization energies than the preceding Group VA elements. • For example,the ionization energy of boron is lower than that of beryllium,and the ionization energy of oxygen is lower than that of nitrogen. • Ionization energy is defined as the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state. • Partially positive charge • partially negative 卤素原子有获得一个电子成为卤离子 x-的强烈倾向。 • • • • • 随原子序数增加卤素电离能依次降低。 氯、溴和碘的第一电离能比氢的电离能低. 碘原子失去电子成为+1 价的离子. 碘阳离子在络合物中是比较稳定的. 卤素原子得到一个电子可以生成氧化数为一 1 的化合物. • • In most ionic compounds,anions are larger than cations From such considerations，it is obvious that inert gases should be less reactive than are halide ions，but their compounds should show even higher reactivity than the halogens． • The big question remaining is：Are there any chemically significant conditions under which noble gases can be persuaded to yield electrons sufficiently to produce stable compounds? The answer is definitely,yes! (The same question can be asked of halogen atoms，which have ionization energies comparable to those of the inert gases．) A chlorine molecule is more stable than two separate chlorine atoms,but the bond of a chlorine atom to a hydrogen atom has even greater stability.Nature always favors the formation of the more stable,stronger bonds Another obvious point of similarity between halogen and noble gas compounds is the characteristically large number of electrons that must be accommodated in the valence shell．For a noble gas atom bonded to any number of other atoms,the octet rule must be exceeded. For a ha1ogen atom to be bonded to more than one other atom，the same must be true • • • The alkali metals have a single outer-shell electron . The halogens have seven outer-shell electrons. The noble gases-with the exception of helium,which has only two electrons-have outermost shells with eight electrons. • The third IE of both elements is very much higher because now the outer shell is exhausted and more tightly bound inner shells are being ionized.The trends are important in understanding the stable valence states of elements. • • 氟原子价层没有空的 d 轨道． 根据保里 Pauling 原理，1s 轨道最多能容纳 2 个电子. It is a curious historical fact that the mythical inertia of a closed shell did much to diminish the energy expended in the search for noble gas compounds,long after numerous examples of superoctet valence shells were known,particularly among interhalogen compounds • We may roughly classify the interhalogen compounds into two categories：those in oxidation state zero (the binary analogs of the elementary diatomics) and those in which one of the halogens is in a formally positive oxidation state． Heterodiatomic halogens are generally formed readily on mixing the required pair of halogens in a 1:1 ratio.The bond energies are always higher in the heteropolar molecules than are the average bond energies of the two constituents and in some cases higher than either.It is this factor that drives the reactions. • 除氟外，氯、溴和碘可显正氧化态，在卤素显正氧化态的化合物中，键是极性共价 键. • All heterodiatomics are more or less stable under ambient conditions except for BrF,which spontaneouly disproportionates to BrF3and Br2. The bonding in the halogen diatomics can be attributed to a single σbond,formed by overlap of p orbitals. In the heterodiatomics, the principal new features are the poorer orbital overlaps that are possible between atoms of widely different principal quantum number,the polarity arising from the difference in electronegativity,the contribution of ionic terms to increase bond energy,and the relief in interelectronic repulsion in the fluorides,relative to difluorine • • 举例 分子的极性决定了有机物在水中的溶解度. • Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom in a covalent bond to attract shared electrons to itself. • Atoms of the most electronegative elements have the greatest attraction for electrons. • • • • Oxygen is more electronegative element than nitrogen. Flurine is the most electronegative element. Electronegativity increases in a period of elements as atomic number increases. Chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen and has a greater attraction for electrons than does hydrogen. • Dihalogens (except for F2) usually react by dissociaton into atoms or by heterolytic dissociation under the influence of an attacking reagent.Thus,reaction of Cl2 with hydroxide may be viewed as displacement of Cl- from Cl2 by OH-: • • • Cl2 十 OH-→HOCl 十 Cl一个氯分子在光作用下离解成两个氯原子 C1*。 随着卤素原子序数增加和原子半径的增大，原子轨道有效重叠程度减少，因此卤素 分子的离解能依次降低。 • 在卤素分子中氟具有较低的离解能，因为氟的原子半径很小，孤电子对之间有较大 的排斥． • The tendency to undergo heterolytic fission increases on descending the group,and the I2 molecule can actually be cleaved to two stable species: • • 卤素与水发生氧化反应而放出氧气. 在碳酸钠溶液中，溴发生歧化反应生成溴化钠和溴酸钠.当用溶液酸化时单质溴又从 溶液中析出。Disproportionation • 在酸性介质中仅次氯酸会发生歧化反应，在碱性介质中所有次卤酸的歧化反应都可 以发生。 • The increased homolytic bond energies of the heterodiatomic halogens decrease the tendency toward homolytic reactions,but the increased polarity increases the tendency toward heterolytic reactions.Thus,ICl is a much better electrophilic iodinating agent than is I2 and unlike I2 even iodinates aromatic compounds. • • iodate 二氧化钛用氯化试剂可用于制取四氯化钛．chlorinating • • • • • • • electron configuration Hybridization Antibonding orbital Withdraw On ascending the group Elements in the same group of the table have similar electron configurations. The valence-shell electron configuration of tellurium is 5s25p4,the tellurium atom has four 5p electrons. • Aluminum is in period3and group13,its valence-shell electron configuration is 3s23p1. • • • Beryllium has four electrons; its electron configuration is 1s22s2. The potassium atom has the electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p64s2. In becoming F-,a fluorine atom acquires the very stable electron configuration of the noble gas neon 举例 卤素的原子轨道通常要发生杂化. • • 在卤素互化合物中，原子半径大的卤素原子作为中心原子在成键时提供杂化轨道. 卤素分子是双原子分子。根据分子轨道理论，在卤素分子中成键轨道上有六个电子， 反键轨道上有四个电子。 翻译 • 硝酸钴制备高氯酸钴包括两步反应:首先硝酸钴与碳酸钠反应生成碳酸钴 , 然后由 碳酸钴与高氯酸反应制得高氯酸钴。但据文献方法难以达到理想的结果。第一步常 因生成胶状碳酸钴沉淀而难以过滤分离, 第二步需要很长时间才能得到晶状高氯酸 钴。我们改进了实验方法, 得到的碳酸钴容易分离, 且在较短的时间内就能获得针 状高氯酸钴晶体。 • Preparation of cobalt perchlorate by cobalt nitrate includes two-step reaction : Firstly, reaction of cobalt nitrate and sodium carbonate produces cobalt carbonate, and then cobalt carbonate reacts with perchloric acid to prepare cobalt perchlorate. However, it is difficult to achieve the desired results according to literature methods • Because in the first step the resulting colloidal cobalt carbonate precipitation is difficult to filter and separate , and the second step takes a long time to get crystalline cobalt perchlorate. We have improved the experimental method, the resulting cobalt carbonate is easily separated, and in a relatively short period of time needle-like crystals of cobalt perchlorate can be obstained. • 将六水合硝酸钴和无水碳酸钠分别溶解在 100ml 和 500ml 热水中,然后在恒温水浴中, 一边搅拌一边慢慢把碳酸钠溶液滴加到硝酸钴溶液中, 加完后沉淀被抽滤, 用热水 洗涤至滤液呈中性, 得淡红色粉末状碳酸钴. • Cobalt nitrate hexahydrate and anhydrous Sodium carbonate were dissolved in 100ml and 500ml hot water, and then in constant temperature water bath sodium carbonate solution was slowly added dropwise to cobalt nitrate solution with stirring. • After addition, the precipitate was filtered and washed with hot water to make the filtrate neutral, pale red cobalt carbonate powder was obtained. • • 用高氯酸溶解稍过量的碳酸钴, 滤去 不溶物。滤液在水浴上用旋转蒸发器浓缩。当有晶膜出现时, 将溶液转入烧杯, 放 在水浴中冷却, 析出棕红色针状结晶, 即六水合高氯酸钻, 产率 95%以上。 • A little excess of cobalt carbonate was dissolved by perchloric acid, and insoluble substance was filtered off. Filtrate was concentrated in the water bath by a rotary evaporator. When crystalline film appeared ,solution was tranfered into the beaker. The beaker was placed in a water bath to cool, red-brown needle-like crystal was precipitated, that is, cobalt perchlorate hexahydrate , with over 95% of yield. • 高氯酸铝中铝含量的测定 • • Determination of aluminum in the aluminum Perchlorate 将 0.552 克高氯酸铝置于 250 毫升锥形瓶, 加 25 毫升蒸馏水使之溶解.用氨水和稀盐 酸调节溶液 PH 至 6.5-7。 加 5%EDTA 溶液 10 毫升和少量指示剂,溶液用 0.05MZnCl2 标准溶液滴定至终点。 • 0.552 grams aluminum perchlorate was placed in 250 ml conical flask, 25 ml of distilled water was added to make it dissolve. Solution of PH was adjusted to 6.5-7 using ammonia water and dilute hydrochloric acid. After 10ml of5% EDTA solution and a small amount of indicator was added , the solution was titrated with 0.05M ZnCl2 standard solution to the end point. • 氧化铋是一种较为重要的化学试剂,应用于电子工业中. • Bismuth(III) oxide is a more important chemical reagent, used in electronic industries. • 硝酸铋直接与强碱氢氧化钠反应. 生成的氢氧化铋具有弱酸性,在强碱的作用下进 一步反应生成氧化铋. • Bismuth Nitrate directly reacts with sodium hydroxide.The resulting bismuth hydroxide which has a weak acidity,reacts further to form Bismuth(III) oxide under the action of the alkali. • 100g 硝酸铋加入到由 lOOmL 水和 7mL65％ 的硝酸混合成的稀硝酸中， 溶解后置 于滴液漏斗中. • 准确量取 lOOmL28％的碱液于 500mL 烧杯中,将滴液漏斗中的硝酸铋滴加到氢氧化 钠中. • • • • 随着硝酸铋的加入, 反应温度逐步上升. 当温度约为 400C 左右时，白色的氢氧化铋逐步变为浅黄色的氧化铋。 当硝酸铋加完后,继续搅拌反应 0．5 h， 然后过滤并用热的去离子水洗涤。 于 1O00C 温度烘干， 即得 47．5g 浅黄色细粉末状产品， 产率 99% 。 • 100g Bismuth Nitrate was added to a dilute nitric acid mixed by lOOmL water and 7mL65% nitric acid, after dissolution, the solution was placed in the dropping funnel. • lOOmL 28% of basic solution is measured into the 500mL beaker, and bismuth nitrate in the dropping funnel is added to sodium hydroxide. • • With the addition of bismuth nitrate, the reaction temperature is rising When the temperature is about 400C , the white bismuth hydroxide is converted into the light yellow bismuth oxide. • approximately 句子 • Alkane,as a class,are characterized by a general inertness to many chemical reagents.Carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds are quite strong;they do not break unless alkanes are heated to very high temperatures. • Because carbon and hydrogen atoms have nearly the same electronegativity,the carbon-hydrogen bonds of alkanes are only slightly polarized.As a consequence,they are generally unaffected by most bases. • Molecules of alkanes have no unshared electrons to offer .This low reactivity of alkanes toward many reagents accounts for the fact that alkanes were originally called paraffins. • Alanes can react with halogens to form alkyl halides.for example,methane reacts with chlorine to form chloromethane(methyl chloride), dichloromethane(methylene chloride), trichloromethane(chloroform),and tetrachloromethane(carbon tetrachloride • • Substitution Alkyl halides undergo nucleophilic substitution in the presence of nucleophilic reagents. • • Benzene undergoes electrophilic substitution in the presence of aluminum chloride. The reaction of methane with chlorine produces a mixture of chlorinated products,whose composition depends on the amount of chlorine added and also on the reaction conditions. • • Homolytic cleavage forms free radicals,while heterolytic cleavage forms ions. Enthalpies for heterolytic cleavage depend strongly on the solvent’s ability to solvate the ions that result. • Homolytic cleavage is used to define bond-dissociation energies because the values do not vary so much with different solvents. • The splitting of a Cl2 molecule is an initiation step that produces two highly reactive chlorine atoms.A chlorine atom is an example of a reactive intermediate:a short-lived species that is never present in high concentration because it reacts as quickly as it is formed. • Notice that the first propagation step begins with one free radical(the chlorine atom) and produces another free radical(the methyl radical).The regeneration of a free radical is characteristic of a propagation step of a chain reaction.The reaction can continue because another reactive intermediate is produced. • In the second propagation step,the methyl radical reacts with a molecule of chlorine to form chloromethane. • In addition to forming chloromethane,the second propagation step produces another chlorine atom.The chlorine atom can react with another molecule of Combination of any two free radicals intermediates is a termination step because it decreases the number of free radicals. • While a chain reaction is in progress,the concentration of radicals is very low.The probability that two radicals will combine in a termination step is lower than the probability that each will encounter a molecule of reactant and give a propagation step. • The termination steps become important toward the end of the reaction,when there are relatively few molecules of reactants available.At this point,the free radicals are less likely to encounter a molecule of reactant than they are to encounter each other.The chain reaction quickly stops. • When a chlorine radical collides with a methane molecule,it abstracts a hydrogen atom from methane. • If weaker bonds are broken and stronger bonds are formed,heat is evolved and the reaction is exothermic.In an exothermic reaction,the enthalpy term makes a favorable negative contribution • If stronger bonds are broken and weaker bonds are formed,then energy is consumed in the reaction,and the reaction is endothermic.In an endothermic reaction,the enthalpy term makes an unfavorable positive contribution • The demand for gasoline is much greater than that supplied by the gasoline fraction of petroleum.Important processes in the petroleum industry,therefore,are concerned with converting hydrocarbons from other fractions into gasoline. • When a mixture of alkanes from the gas oil fraction is heated at very high temperatures in the presence of a variety of catalysts,the molecules break apart and rearrange to smaller,more highly branched alkanes containing 5-10 carbon atoms.This process is called catalytic cracking. • Cracking can also be done in the absence of a catalyst—called thermal cracking-but in this process the products tend to have unbranched chains,and alkanes with unbranched chains have a very low “octane rating”. • As a class,the alkanes and cycloalkanes are the least dense of all groups of organic compounds. • • • All alkanes and cycloalkanes have densities considerably less than 1.00g ml-1. As a result,petroleum(a mixture of hydrocarbons rich in alkanes)floats on water. Alkanes and cycloalkanes are almost totally insoluble in water because of their very low polarity and their inability to form hydrogen bonds. • Liquid alkanes and cycloalkanes are soluble in one another,and they generally dissolve in solvents of low polarity. • • Good solvents for them are benzene,carbon tetrachloride, chloroform,and other hydrocarbons Alcohols and phenols • • • 2 -甲基- 1 -丙醇，2-丁醇，triphenylmethanol， 1-methylcyclopentanol，环己醇， 1 -溴- 3 ,3 -二甲基丁醇， 2 - bromocyclohexanol， • • • • • 1 -ethylcyclopropanol， 3 - （碘甲基）- 2 -异丙基醇， 顺- 2 -戊烯-1-醇，4 -氯- 3 -丁烯-2-醇， 3 –羟基丁酸， 7 -羟基- 2 –庚酮 • • IUPAC Names methanol , ethanol , 2-methyl-1-propanol , 2-butanol , triphenylmethanol , 1-methylcyclopentanol , cyclohexanol , • • • • • • • • 1-bromo-3,3-dimethyl-2-butanol, trans-2-bromocyclohexanol, 1-ethylcyclopropanol, 3-(iodomethyl)-2-isopropyl-1-pentanol, cis-2-penten-1-ol, 4-chloro-3-buten-2-ol, 3-hydroxybutanoic acid, 7-hydroxy-2-heptanone common names methyl alcohol , ethyl alcohol , isopropyl alcohol allyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol, t-butyl alcohol . • Names of Diols Alcohols with two -OH groups are called diols.They are named like other alcohols except that the suffix diol is used and two numbers are needed to tell where the two hydroxyl groups are located. • • • • • • • propane-1,2-diol , 1-cyclohexyl-1,3-butanediol , trans-cyclopentane-1,2-diol , ethane-1,2-diol(ethylene glycol), propane-1,2-diol(propylene glycol), cis-cyclohexane-1,2-diol (cis-cyclohexene glycol) • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2-butanone 2,4-dimethyl-3-pentanone 1-phenyl-1-propanone 2-cyclohexenone 4-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-pentanone 4-buten-2-one 2,4-pentanedione acetone 2 -丁酮 2,4 -甲基- 3 –戊酮 1 -苯基- 1 -丙酮 2 -环己烯酮 4 -羟基- 4 -甲基- 2 -戊酮 4 -丁烯- 2 – 酮 2,4 -戊二酮 acetone O O CH2 CH CH2 C CH3 CH3CH2CCH3 2-Butanone 4-Penten-2-one O O 2,4-Hexanedione CH3 CH2 C CH2 C CH3 CH3CH2 O CH2 CH CH C CH2 O C CH3 5-Ethyl-6-heptene-2,4-dione O CH3CH2CCH2CH3 O CH3CCH2CH3 Diethyl ketone Ethyl methyl ketone O C CH2CH3 Phenyl ethyl ketone CH3 CH3CHCH2CH2CH2CHO 5-Methylhexanal CH3CH2 CH2CH2 CHO P entanal OHCCH2CH2 CH2 CH2 CHO Hexaned ial CHO CHO Cyclohexanecarbaldehy 1,2-Cyclopentanedicarbaldeh CHO CHO 2-Cyclohexenecarbaldehy 含有两个以上醛基的链状多元烃，当醛基都是直链连在主链上，命名时在主链烃名后加上 “三醛”或“四醛”等。英文名称在烃名后加“tricarbaldehyde”或“tetracarbaldehyde”。也可以 把链中间所连的醛基作为取代基而用“Formyl”或“Methanoyl”,两端的醛基作为二醛在烃名 后加“dial”。 • • Principle: Acetanilide can be prepared from aniline in several ways, using acetyl chloride, acetic anhydride or glacial acetic acid as starting materials. Acetyl chloride reacts very vigorously. • Acetic anhydride is preferred for a laboratory synthesis because its rate of hydrolysis is low enough to allow the acetylation of amine to be carried out in aqueous solution. It gives a product of high purity and in good yield. The procedure with glacial acetic is of commercial interest since it is economical, but it requires long heating. • Acetylation is often used to "protect" a primary or a secondary amine functional group.The amine group can be regenerated readily by hydrolysis in acid or base. • Procedure 1. Measure l0 mL of aniline into a 100 mL round-bottom flask,add 17 mL of glacial acetic acid and 0.1 g of zinc powder to the flask. 2. Assemble a fractional column with a thermometer, and use a 50 mL Erlenmeyer flask as a collector. 3. Put the round-bottomed flask on an asbestos pad and heat the mixture to reflux. The flame must be controlled to keep the temperature of the ths distilling vapor being about 105OC. 4. After 1 hr, the reaction has finished. With stirring ,the hot solution is poured into a beaker with 250 mL of cooled water. In a few seconds a precipitate of acetanilide forms. 5. Collect the product by suction(vacuum) filtration, wash it with ice-cold water, and recrystathze from water. 6. Record the mass and melting range of the acetanilide obtained, calculate the percentage yield. Pure acetanilide is a colorless sheet-shaped crystal. • • Method 2 1. Put 125 mL of water in a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask. Add 4.5 mL of concentrated • hydrochloride acid, and swirl the flask a couple of times, and then add 4.6 mL of aniline and swirl the mixture. • 2. In a separate container, add 4.51 g of sodium acetate to 25 mL of water, measure into a graduated cylinder 5.2 mL of acetic an- • hydride . • 3. Warm the aniline hydrochloride solution to 50oC on a hot-water hath, then add the acetic anhydride. Swirl the flask to dissolve the anhydride, and add the sodium acetate quickly in one portion . Swirl the flask again and set it in an ice-water bath. • 4. After 20 min, collect the product by suction filtration, wash it with a small amount of ice-cold water, and recrystallize from water. • • 5. Record the mass and calculate the percentage yield. 6. Determine the melting point of acetanilide. Synthesis of Cinnamic Acid Principle : • When benzaldehyde is mixed with an anhydride and heated in the existence of the corresponding carboxylate, an a, β-unsaturated acid can be prepared through the Perkin reaction. • During the course of this experiment, potassium carbonate can be used to substitute for potassium acetate in the Perkin reaction because it will shorten the reaction time and improve the product yield. • • Procedure 1. Place benzaldehyde, 8 mL acetic anhydride, 4.2 g ground anhydrous potassium carbonate and a boiling stone into a 200-mL round-bottomed flask. Among these materials, benzaldehyde and acetic anhydride are both redistilled before use. Heat the mixture to reflux on the asbestos pad for about 30 minutes. Because carbon dioxide will be released in the process, bubbles will be produced at an early stage of the reaction. • 2. Cool down the reaction mixture, and add 20 mL of water into the flask with shaking or stirring by a glass rod to avoid bulk masses forming. Distill excessive benzaldehyde from the flask by means of steam distillation. • 3. Then cool the flask down and add 20 mL 10% sodium hydroxide solution as well.Make sure all the cinnamic acid is converted into the sodium salt and dissolves completely. • 4. Filter the solution into a 250-mL beaker and cool down to room temperature, stir and acidify it with concentrated hydrochloric acid and check it with Congo-red test paper until it becomes blue. • 5. Filter the solution and wash the solid with an appropriate amount of cold water. Keep • the aspirator running until the filter residue becomes dry. Air-dry the crude product. About • • 3 g product can be obtained (65 ~ 75% ). 6. The crude product can be recrystallized with hot water or the mixture of water and ethanol ( the ratio is 3:1, V/V). The melting point of pure cinnamic acid is 135.60C Synthesis of Benzoic Acid and Benzyl Alcohol • • Principle: When an aldehyde with no a-hydrogen reacts with concentrated alkali solution, there occurs self oxidation-reduction reaction between molecules, in which one molecule of aldehyde • is reduced to an alcohol and another is oxidized to an acid. This kind of reaction is called the • Cannizzaro reaction. Therefore, benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol are prepared through a Can• nizzaro reaction. • Procedure • l. Dissolve 0. 8 g of solid sodium hydroxide in 0. 8 mL of water by swirling it in a 100 mL of Erlenmeyer flask. Cool the mixture down to room temperature. • 2. Place 10.3 mL of fresh-distillated benzaldehyde into the NaOH solution batchwise. Cork the flask securely and shake the flask vigorously until a wax-like soIution is formed. • 3. Allow the stoppered flask to stand overnight or until the next laboratory period. • 4. Add about 30 ~ 50 mL of water to the mixture, stopper the flask, and shake it. • 5. If some crystals originally present do not dissolve, add a little more water, and break up the solid with a glass rod, then shake the mixture. Repeat the procedure until all solids are in the solution. • 6. Pour the solution into a separatory funnel, and extract the solution three times with 8 mL of ether each . Combine the ether solutions, wash it with 4 mL of saturatedaqueous sodium bisulfite , 8 mL of 10% aqueous sodium carbonate and 8 mL of water, respectively. • • 7. Dry the organic solution with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. 8. Heat the crude product in a water bath, distill the ether fraction out. Then drain the water out of the condenser of the apparatus, continue to distill benzyl alcohol and collect the fraction that boils between 198 ~ 204 0C. • 9. Weigh the product and calculate the yield. Pure benzyl alcohol is a colorless liquid. • 10. Pour the alkaline aqueous solution from the separatory funnel into a mixture of 32mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid, 32 mL of water, and about 20 g of crushed ice. Stir vigorously during the addition. GROUPS • • IB AND lIB ELEMENTS Physical properties of Group IB and lIB 1.These elements have a greater bulk use as metals than in compounds,and their physical properties vary widely. • 2. Gold is the most malleable and ductile of the metals. • The most important use of silver compounds is in photography. • The most important use of gold is as the monetary reserve of nations throughout the wold. • The principal use of ZnO is as a filler in rubber manufacture • They possess some of the distinctive physical properties of metals-malleability,ductility,and excellent electrical and thermal conductivity. • 3. Cadmium has specific uses because of its low-melting temperature in a number of alloys. • Cadmium rods are used in nuclear reactors because the metal is a good neutron absorber. • 4.Mercury vapor and its salts are poisonous,though the free metal may be taken internally under certain conditions. Because of its relatively low boiling point and hence volatile nature, free mercury should never be allowed to stand in an open container in the laboratory.Evidence shows that inhalation of its vapors is injurious. • 5.The metal alloys readily with most of the metals (except iron and platinum)to form amalgams ,the name given to any alloy of mercury. • 6. Copper sulfate,or blue vitriol(CuSO4, 5H20) is the most important and widely used salt of copper. On heating,the salt slowly loses water to form first the trihydrate (CuSO4 .3H20), then the monohydrate (CuSO4 . H2O), and finally the white anhydrous salt. The anhydrous salt is often used to test for the presence of water in organic liquids. For example, some of the anhydrous copper salt added to alcohol (which contains water)will turn blue because of the hydration of the salt. • 7.Copper sulfate is used in electroplating. Fishermen dip their nets in copper sulfate solution to inhibit the growth of organisms that would rot the fabric.Paints specifically formulated for use on the bottoms of marine craft contain copper compounds to inhibit the growth of barnacles and other organisms. • 8.When dilute ammonium hydroxide is added to a solution of copper( II ) ions,a greenish precipitate of Cu (OH)2 or a basic copper( II)salt is formed. This dissolves as more ammonium hydroxide is added. The excess ammonia forms an ammoniated complex with the copper ( II )ion of the composition,Cu (NH3)42+. This ion is only slightly dissociated • Hence in an ammoniacal solution very few copper ( II) ions are present. Insoluble copper compounds,except copper sulfide,are dissolved by ammonium hydroxides. The formation of the copper ( II ) ammonia ion is often used as a test for Cu2+ because of its deep,intense blue color. • 9.Copper ( II) ferrocyanide Cu2[Fe (CN)6] is obtained as a reddish-brown precipitate on the addition of a soluble ferrocyanide to a solution of copper ( II )ions. The formation of this salt is also used as a test for the presence of copper( II ) ions. Compounds of Silver and Gold 10.Silver nitrate,sometimes called lunar caustic,is the most important salt of silver. It melts readily and may be cast into sticks for use in cauterizing wounds. The salt is prepared by dissolving silver in nitric acid and evaporating the solution 11.The salt is the starting material for most of the compounds of silver,including the halides used in photography,It is readily reduced by organic reducing agent,with the formation of a black deposit of finely divided silver;this action is responsible for black spots left on the fingers from the handling of the salt. Indelible marking inks and pencils take advantage of this property of silver nitrate. 12.The halides of silver, except the fluoride, are very insoluble compounds and may be precipitated by the addition of a solution of silver salt to a solution containing chloride, bromide or iodide ions. 13.The addition of a strong base to a solution of a silver salt precipitates brown silver oxide(Ag2O). One might expect the hydroxide of silver to precipitate,but it seems likely that silver hydroxide is very unstable and breaks down into the oxide and water--if,indeed,it is ever formed at all. However,since a solution of silver oxide is definitely basic,there must be hydroxide ions present in solution 14.Because of its inactivity,gold forms relatively few compounds. Two series of compounds are known-- monovalent and trivalent. Monovalent (aurous) compounds resemble silver compounds(aurous chloride is water insoluble and light sensitive),while the higher valence(auric)compounds tend to form complexes. Gold is resistant to the action of most chemicals _ air,oxygen.and water have no effect. The common acids do not attack the metal ,but a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids(aqua regia)dissolves it to form gold( III )chloride or cloroauric acid. The action is probably due to free chlorine present in the aqua regia. Chloroauric acid crystallizes from solution. 15.Zinc is fairly high in the activity series. It reacts readily with acids to produce hydrogen and displaces less active metals from their salts. The action of acids on impure zinc is much more rapid than on pure zinc,since bubbles of hydrogen gas collect on the surface of pure zinc and slow down the action. If another metal is present as an impurity,the hydrogen is liberated from the surface of the contaminating metal rather than from the zinc. An electric couple to facilitate the action is probably set up between the two metals 16.Zinc oxide (ZnO),the most widely used zinc compoud,is a white powder at ordinary temperatures ,but changes to yellow on heating. When cooled,it again becomes white.Zinc oxide is obtained by burning zinc in sulfide. The principal use of ZnO is as a filler in rubber manufacture, particularly in automobile tires. As a body for paints it has the advantage over white lead of not darkening on exposure to an atmosphere containing hydrogen sulfide. Its covering power ,however,is inferior to that of white lead. 翻译 Mixed salt = Cation + cation’ + anion for example: NaKSO3 Sodium potassium sulfite CaNH4PO4 Calcium ammonium phosphate AgLiCO3 Silver lithium carbonate NaNH4SO4 Sodium ammonium sulfate KNaCO3: potassuim sodium carbonate NaNH4HPO4: sodium ammonium hydrogenphosphate 水合盐：结晶水读做 water 或 hydrate 如 AlCl3∙6H2O: aluminum chloride 6-water 或 aluminum chloride hexahydrate AlK(SO4)2∙12H2O: aluminium potassium sulfate 12-water • • H2SO4 HCl sulfuric acid hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric acid • HNO3 nitric acid • HNO2 nitrous acid • HCN hydrogen cyanide or hydrocyanic acid • Na2S sodium sulfide • CuSO4 copper (II) sulfate or cupric sulfate • Fe(NO3)3 iron (III) nitrate or ferric nitrate • HClO4 perchloric acid • KCN potassium cyanide • NH4Cl ammonium chloride • NaClO sodium hypochlorite • NaOH sodium hydroxide • Mn(OH)2 Manganese(II) hydroxide • Fe2O3 iron(III) oxide or ferric oxide • P2O5 Diphosphorus pentoxide • H2O2 hydrogen peroxide • K2Cr2O7 potassium dichromate • Cu2(OH)2CO3 Dicopper(II) dihydroxycarbonate • CaHPO4 calcium hydrogen phosphate • PtCl42- tetrachloroplatinum(II) • [Ag(NH3)2]Cl Diamminesilver(I) chloride • K4[Fe(CN)6] Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) Basic salt = Cation + hydroxy-anion for example: Cu2(OH)2CO3 Dicopper(II) dihydroxycarbonate Ca(OH)Cl Calcium hydroxychloride Mg(OH)PO4 Magnesium hydroxyphosphate 酸式盐：(Acidic salts) Acidic salt = Cation + hydrogen + anion for example: NaHSO4 Sodium hydrogen sulfate Na2HPO4 Disodium hydrogen phosphate NaH2PO4 Sodium dihydrogen phosphate Ca(HSO4)2 Calcium bisulfate NaHCO3 Sodium hydrogencarbonate 或 Sodium bicarbonate • • • • • 1．金属镁比金属汞活泼。 2．把氢氧化铵加到铜离子溶液中，可形成氢氧化铜沉淀。 3．把银溶于硝酸并蒸发此溶液，可制备硝酸银。 4．在硫酸生产中,五氧化二钒用作催化剂. 5．氧和氟的电子亲合势分别比硫和氯的电子亲合势要小。 • • 1. Magnesium is more reactive than the metal mercury. 2. When ammonium hydroxide is added to the copper ions in solution , the precipitate of cupric hydroxide is formed. • 3. When the silver is dissolved in nitric acid and the solution is evaporated, silver nitrate can be prepared. • • 4. In the production of sulfuric acid, vanadium pentoxide is used as a catalyst. 5.The electronic affinities of Oxygen and fluorine are smaller than the electronic affinities of sulfur and chlorine, respectively.
