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INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY
TERMINOLOGY IN ANATOMY
16. September.2011 Friday
INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY
What is anatomy?
The word “anatomy” is derived from “anatomia, anatome” which has a Latin and Ancient Greek
origin. The prefix “ana-“means “up", where “temnein, tome” means "to cut." As a result, anatomy means
“cutting up, cutting through”.
The term human anatomy comprises a consideration of the various structures which make up the
human organism. In a restricted sense it deals merely with the parts which form the fully developed
individual and which can be rendered evident to the naked eye by various methods of dissection.
Types of anatomy
The three main approaches to studying anatomy are regional, systemic, and clinical (or applied),
reflecting the body's organization and the priorities and purposes for studying it. In systematic anatomy,
various structures may be separately considered—and the organs and tissues may be studied in relation to
one another in topographical or regional anatomy.
Regional Anatomy
Regional anatomy (topographical anatomy) considers the organization of the human body as major
parts or segments: a main body, consisting of the head, neck, and trunk (subdivided into thorax, abdomen,
back, and pelvis/perineum), and paired upper limbs and lower limbs. All the major parts may be further
subdivided into areas and regions. Regional anatomy is the method of studying the body's structure by
focusing attention on a specific part (e.g., the head), area (the face), or region (the orbital or eye region);
examining the arrangement and relationships of the various systemic structures (muscles, nerves, arteries,
etc.) within it; and then usually continuing to study adjacent regions in an ordered sequence.
Surface anatomy is an essential part of the study of regional anatomy. Surface anatomy provides
knowledge of what lies under the skin and what structures are perceptible to touch (palpable) in the living
body at rest and in action. In short, surface anatomy requires a thorough understanding of the anatomy of the
structures beneath the surface..
Systematic Anatomy
Systematic Anatomy.—The various systems of which the human body is composed are grouped under the
following headings:
Osteology—the bony system or skeleton.
Syndesmology—the articulations or joints.
Myology—the muscles. With the description of the muscles it is convenient to include that of the fasciæ
which are so intimately connected with them.
Angiology—the vascular system, comprising the heart, bloodvessels, lymphatic vessels, and lymph glands.
Neurology—the nervous system. The organs of sense may be included in this system.
Splanchnology—the visceral system. Topographically the viscera form two groups, viz., the thoracic
viscera and the abdomino-pelvic viscera. The heart, a thoracic viscus, is best considered with the vascular
system. The rest of the viscera may be grouped according to their functions: (a) the respiratory apparatus;
(b) the digestive apparatus; and (c) the urogenital apparatus. Strictly speaking, the third subgroup should
include only such components of the urogenital apparatus as are included within the abdomino-pelvic cavity,
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but it is convenient to study under this heading certain parts which lie in relation to the surface of the body,
e. g., the testes and the external organs of generation.
Clinical Anatomy
Clinical (applied) anatomy emphasizes aspects of bodily structure and function important in the practice of
medicine, dentistry, and the allied health sciences. It incorporates the regional and systemic approaches to
studying anatomy and stresses clinical application.
History of anatomy & anatomy education in the world
The development of anatomy as a science extends from the earliest examinations of sacrificial
victims to the sophisticated analyses of the body performed by modern scientists. It has been characterized,
over time, by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body.
The field of Human Anatomy has a prestigious history, and is considered to be the most prominent of the
biological sciences of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Methods have also improved dramatically,
advancing from examination of animals through dissection of cadavers to technologically complex
techniques developed in the 20th century.
Ancient anatomy
Egypt
The study of anatomy begins at least as early as 1600 BCE, the date of the Edwin Smith Surgical
Papyrus. This treatise shows that the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus and
bladder were recognized, and that the blood vessels were known to emanate from the heart.
Greece
The earliest medical scientist of whose works any great part survives today is Hippocrates, a Greek
physician active in the late 5th and early 4th centuries BCE (460 - 377 BCE). His work demonstrates a basic
understanding of musculoskeletal structure, and the beginnings of understanding of the function of certain
organs, such as the kidneys. Much of his work, however, and much of that of his students and followers
later, relies on speculation rather than empirical observation of the body.
In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle and several contemporaries produced a more empirically founded
system, based animal dissection. The first use of human cadavers for anatomical research occurred later in
the 4th century BCE when Herophilos and Erasistratus gained permission to perform live dissections, or
vivisection, on criminals in Alexandria under the auspices of the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Galen
The final major anatomist of ancient times was Galen, active in the 2nd century. He compiled much
of the knowledge obtained by previous writers, and furthered the inquiry into the function of organs by
performing vivisection on animals. Due to a lack of readily available human specimens, discoveries through
animal dissection were broadly applied to human anatomy as well. His collection of drawings, based mostly
on dog anatomy, became the anatomy textbook for 1500 years.
Early modern anatomy
The works of Galen and Avicenna, especially The Canon of Medicine which incorporated the
teachings of both, were translated into Latin, and the Canon remained the most authoritative text on anatomy
in European medical education until the 16th century. The first major development in anatomy in Christian
Europe, since the fall of Rome, occurred at Bologna in the 14th to 16th centuries, where a series of authors
dissected cadavers and contributed to the accurate description of organs and the identification of their
functions. A succession of researchers proceeded to refine the body of anatomical knowledge, giving their
names to a number of anatomical structures along the way.
17th and 18th centuries
The study of anatomy flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries. The advent of the printing press
facilitated the exchange of ideas. Because the study of anatomy concerned observation and drawings, the
popularity of the anatomist was equal to the quality of his drawing talents, and one need not be an expert in
Latin to take part. Many famous artists studied anatomy, attended dissections, and published drawings for
money, from Michelangelo to Rembrandt. For the first time, prominent universities could teach something
about anatomy through drawings, rather than relying on knowledge of Latin.
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19th century anatomy
During the 19th century, anatomists anatomists largely finalized and systematized the descriptive
human anatomy of the previous century. The discipline also progressed to establish growing sources of
knowledge in histology and developmental biology, not only of humans but also of animals. Extensive
research was conducted in more areas of anatomy.
History of anatomy education in Turkey
Anatomy education commenced as a distinct course at “Tıbhane-i Cerrahhane-i Amire”, the first medical
school founded by Sultan Mahmut II in March 14th, 1827. It is possible to explain anatomy education in
three periods:
1. Pre-dissection period (1827-1841):
In this period, anatomy education was given theoretically. Anatomy contitutions except bones were
being displayed on charts and models which were brought from Europe.
2. Unmedicated cadaver period (1841-1908):
Anatomy experts were appointed from abroad in this period. First one was Dr. Charles Ambroise Bernard
from Vienna (1808-1844).
After Sultan Abdülmecid has signed the imperical decree allowing dissections with the purpose of
education; practical applications on cadavers began initially. Corpses of slaves and captives were used as
cadavers for dissection. These corpses had no relations and dissections were made until they began to decay.
For this reason, large scale of anatomy education was still given theoretically.
3. Medicated cadaver period (1908-present):
In anatomy education by using the method of giving chemical substance through vein, cadavers
began to be used initally without decaying in this period. As a result, scale of practice in anatomy education
increased considerably.
In this period anatomy education gained new dimensions.Some students were sent to the European
countries. These students had the opportunity of studying with the famous anatomists of the time. They not
only returned to their homeland with the anatomy knowledge but with investigation and education methods
as well. Mazhar Pasha, Prof. Dr. Nurettin Ali Berkol, and Prof. Dr. Zeki Zeren can be considered as the
founders of modern anatomy in Turkey. After 1945, the anatomy education demonstrated a rapid
development considerably. Today, tens of anatomy departments continue their activities.
Ulucam E, Gokce N, Mesut R. Turkish Anatomy Education From the Foundation of The First Modern
School to Today. Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine (ISHIM), 2003,2
The full article @ http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/09.pdf
Anatomical Position
All anatomical descriptions are expressed in relation to one consistent position, ensuring that descriptions are
not ambiguous. One must visualize this position in the mind when describing patients (or cadavers), whether
they are lying on their sides, supine (recumbent, lying on the back, face upward), or prone (lying on the
abdomen, face downward).
The anatomical position refers to the body position as if the person were standing upright with the:
 head, gaze (eyes), and toes directed anteriorly (forward),
 arms adjacent to the sides with the palms facing anteriorly, and
 lower limbs close together with the feet parallel.
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http://www.tpub.com/content/armymedical/MD0956/MD09560009.htm
Anatomical Planes
Anatomical descriptions are based on four imaginary planes (median, sagittal, frontal, and
transverse) that intersect the body in the anatomical position:
The median plane, the vertical plane passing longitudinally through the body, divides the body into right
and left halves. The plane defines the midline of the head, neck, and trunk where it intersects the surface of
the body. Midline is often erroneously used as a synonym for the median plane.
Sagittal planes are vertical planes passing through the body parallel to the median plane.
Frontal (coronal) planes are vertical planes passing through the body at right angles to the median plane,
dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.
Transverse planes are horizontal planes passing through the body at right angles to the median and frontal
planes, dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts. Radiologists refer to transverse
planes as transaxial, which is commonly shortened to axial planes.
Since the number of sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes is unlimited, a reference point (usually a
visible or palpable landmark or vertebral level) is necessary to identify the location or level of the plane,
such as a “transverse plane through the umbilicus”. Sections of the head, neck, and trunk in precise frontal
and transverse planes are symmetrical, passing through both the right and left members of paired structures,
allowing some comparison.
The main use of anatomical planes is to describe sections:
 Longitudinal sections run lengthwise or parallel to the long axis of the body or of any of its parts, and
the term applies regardless of the position of the body. Although median, sagittal, and frontal planes
are the standard (most commonly used) longitudinal sections, there is a 180° range of possible
longitudinal sections.
 Transverse sections, or cross sections, are slices of the body or its parts that are cut at right angles to
the longitudinal axis of the body or of any of its parts. Because the long axis of the foot runs
horizontally, a transverse section of the foot lies in the frontal plane.
 Oblique sections are slices of the body or any of its parts that are not cut along the previously listed
anatomical planes. In practice, many radiographic images and anatomical sections do not lie
precisely in sagittal, frontal, or transverse planes; often they are slightly oblique.
Anatomical Variations
Anatomy books describe (initially, at least) the structure of the body as it is usually observed in
people—that is, the most common pattern. However, occasionally a particular structure demonstrates so
much variation within the normal range that the most common pattern is found less than half the time!
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Turkish Society of Anatomy and Clinical Anatomy (TSACA)
Website: http://anatomidernegi.org
TERMINOLOGY IN ANATOMY
It is important for medical personnel to have a sound knowledge and understanding of the basic
anatomic terms. With the aid of a medical dictionary, you will find that understanding anatomic terminology
greatly assists you in the learning process.
Various adjectives, arranged as pairs of opposites, describe the relationship of parts of the body or
compare the position of two structures relative to each other. Anatomical directional terms are based on the
body in the anatomical position. Four anatomical planes divide the body, and sections divide the planes into
visually useful and descriptive parts.
Anatomical terms are specific for comparisons made in the anatomical position, or with reference to
the anatomical planes:
 Superior refers to a structure that is nearer the vertex, the topmost point of the cranium (Mediev. L.,
skull).
 Cranial relates to the cranium and is a useful directional term, meaning toward the head or cranium.
 Inferior refers to a structure that is situated nearer the sole of the foot.
 Caudal (L. cauda, tail) is a useful directional term that means toward the feet or tail region, represented
in humans by the coccyx (tail bone), the small bone at the inferior (caudal) end of the vertebral column.
 Posterior (dorsal) denotes the back surface of the body or nearer to the back.
Anterior (ventral) denotes the front surface of the body.
 Medial is used to indicate that a structure is nearer to the median plane of the body. For example, the
5th digit of the hand (little finger) is medial to the other digits.
 Conversely, lateral stipulates that a structure is farther away from the median plane. The 1st digit of the
hand (thumb) is lateral to the other digits.
Other terms of relationship and comparisons are independent of the anatomical position or the
anatomical planes, relating primarily to the body's surface or its central core:
 Superficial, intermediate, and deep (Lat. Profundus, profunda) describe the position of structures
relative to the surface of the body or the relationship of one structure to another underlying or overlying
structure.
 External means outside of or farther from the center of an organ or cavity, while internal means inside
or closer to the center, independent of direction.
 Proximal and distal are used when contrasting positions nearer to or farther from the attachment of a
limb or the central aspect of a linear structure (origin in general), respectively. For example, the arm is
proximal to the forearm and the hand is distal to the forearm.
Terms of Laterality
Paired structures having right and left members (e.g., the kidneys) are bilateral, whereas those
occurring on one side only (e.g., the spleen) are unilateral. Something occurring on the same side of the
body as another structure is ipsilateral; the right thumb and right great (big) toe are ipsilateral, for example.
Contralateral means occurring on the opposite side of the body relative to another structure; the right hand
is contralateral to the left hand.
Terms of Movement
Various terms describe movements of the limbs and other parts of the body. Most movements are
defined in relationship to the anatomical position, with movements occurring within, and around axes
aligned with, specific anatomical planes. While most movements occur at joints where two or more bones or
cartilages articulate with one another, several non-skeletal structures exhibit movement (e.g., tongue, lips,
eyelids). Terms of movement may also be considered in pairs of oppositing movements:
Flexion and extension movements generally occur in sagittal planes around a transverse axis.
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 Flexion indicates bending or decreasing the angle between the bones or parts of the body. For most
joints (e.g., elbow), flexion involves movement in an anterior direction, but it is occasionally posterior, as in
the case of the knee joint. Lateral flexion is a movement of the trunk in the coronal plane.
 Extension indicates straightening or increasing the angle between the bones or parts of the body.
Extension usually occurs in a posterior direction. The knee joint, rotated 180° to other joints, is exceptional
in that flexion of the knee involves posterior movement and extension involves anterior movement.
Positions of the body
The supine position of the body is lying on the back. The prone position is lying face downward.
Cavities in the body
Diaphragm: divides body cavity into thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
Mediastinum: contains all structures of the thoracic cavity except the lungs
Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
• Parietal serosa lines internal body walls
• Visceral serosa covers the internal organs
• Serous fluid separates the serosae
Serous Membranes
• Cover the organs of trunk cavities & line the cavity
• Fist represents an organ
• Inner balloon wall represents visceral serous membrane
• Outer balloon wall represents parietal serous membrane
• Cavity between two membranes filled with lubricating serous fluid that is produced by the
membranes
• Inflammation of the serous membranes
Serous Membranes: Named for Their Specific Cavities and Organs
 Pericardium refers to heart.
 Pleura refers to lungs and thoracic cavity.
 Peritoneum refers to abdominopelvic cavity.
Other Body Cavities
 Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities of the digestive organs
 Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose
 Orbital – house the eyes
 Middle ear – contain bones (ossicles) that transmit sound vibrations
 Synovial – joint cavities
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