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AP Biology Summer Assignment Ecology Unit Chapter 52 1. Define the following words: Population -a group of individuals of the same species living in an area Community -a group of populations of different species in an area Ecosystem -the community of organisms in an area and the physical factors with which those organism interact Biosphere - The part of the earth and its atmosphere in which living organisms exist or that is capable of supporting life. Habitat -place where an organism or a biological population normally lives or occurs Niche -the specific area that on organism inhabits; the role or function of an organism or species in an ecosystem 2. In seeking to find out why species are found in certain areas of the world, ecologists focus on two kinds of factors, abiotic and biotic. Describe both of them. Abiotic: non living factors- all the chemical and physical factors such as temp, light, water, and nutirents. Biotic: living factors- all the organisms that are part of an individual's environment (competition, predators, disease) 3. The biosphere is divided into regions called biomes. Biomes exhibit common environmental characteristics. Unique communities or ecosystems of plants and animals occupy them. The following is a list of major biomes. Give a summary of their characteristics. Tropical rain forest -about 200-400 cm of rain annually -high air temperatures year-round -canopy blocks much sunlight -high animal diversity Desert -precipitation is low and highly variable -temperature is variable seasonally and daily -dominated by low, widely scattered vegetation; much bare ground -animals include snakes, lizards, scorpions, ant, beetles, etc. -many nocturnal species Savannas -seasonal rainfall; averages 30-50 cm a year -warm year-round -scattered trees, often thorny with small leaves -fires are common in the dry season -large plant-eating mammals, but dominant herbivores are insects Chaparral -precipitation is highly seasonal; rainy winters, long dry summers; annual precipitation is 30-50 cm -fall, winter, and spring are cool; average summer temperature can reach 30°C -dominated by shrubs and small trees, along with many kinds of grasses and herbs; high plant diversity -native mammals include browsers (like deer and goats) and a high diversity of small mammals; also support many species of amphibians, birds, and other reptiles and insects Temperate grasslands -precipitation: often highly seasonal; relatively dry winters and wet summers; annual precipitation is between 30 and 100 cm; periodic drought is common -winters generally cold, summers are hot -dominant plants are grasses and forbs; many are adapted for periodic drought -native mammals include large grazers; wide variety of burrowing mammals Northern Coniferous Forest (Taigas) -annual precipitation ranges from 30 to 70 cm; periodic droughts are common; however some are temperate rain forests that may receive over 300 cm -winters usually cold and long; summers may be hot -cone-bearing trees -many migratory birds nest here; mammals include moose, brown bear, and Siberian tigers; periodic outbreaks of insects that feed on dominant trees Temperate Broadleaf or Deciduous forests -precipitation can average from about 70 to over 200 cm annually; significant amounts fall during all seasons -winter temperatures average around 0 degrees Celsius; summer are hot and humid -distinct vertical layers; few epiphytes, dominant plants are deciduous trees -many mammals hibernate in winter, while many bird species migrate to warmer climates Tundra -precipitation averages from 20 to 60 cm annually but may exceed 100 cm in alpine tundra -winters are long and cold; summers are short with low temperatures -vegetation is mostly herbaceous; permafrost restricts the growth of plant roots -animals include large grazing musk oxen; caribou and reindeer are migratory; predators include bears, wolves, and foxes; many bird species migrate to the tundra for summer nesting 4. List some freshwater biomes. -lake, pond, streams, rivers, wetlands 5. Describe the following marine biomes: Intertidal zones -oxygen and nutrient levels generally high -substrates generally rocky or sandy -high diversity and biomass of attached marine algae inhabit rocky areas; sandy areas generally lack attached plants or algae -rocky: many animals have structural adaptations allowing them to attach to the hard substrate -sandy: many animals bury themselves and feed as the tides bring sources of food Oceanic Pelagic zone: includes those waters further from the land, basically the open ocean. The pelagic zone is generally cold though it is hard to give a general temperature range since, just like ponds and lakes, there is thermal stratification with a constant mixing of warm and cold ocean currents. The flora in the pelagic zone include surface seaweeds. The fauna include many species of fish and some mammals, such as whales and dolphins. Many feed on the abundant plankton. Coral reefs: are widely distributed in warm shallow waters. They can be found as barriers along continents (e.g., the Great Barrier Reef off Australia), fringing islands, and atolls. Naturally, the dominant organisms in coral reefs are corals. Corals are interesting since they consist of both algae (zooanthellae) and tissues of animal polyp. Since reef waters tend to be nutritionally poor, corals obtain nutrients through the algae via photosynthesis and also by extending tentacles to obtain plankton from the water. Besides corals, the fauna include several species of microorganisms, invertebrates, fishes, sea urchins, octopuses, and sea stars. Marine Benthic zone: area below the pelagic zone, but does not include the very deepest parts of the ocean (see abyssal zone below). The bottom of the zone consists of sand, slit, and/or dead organisms. Here temperature decreases as depth increases toward the abyssal zone, since light cannot penetrate through the deeper water. Flora are represented primarily by seaweed while the fauna, since it is very nutrient-rich, include all sorts of bacteria, fungi, sponges, sea anemones, worms, sea stars, and fishes. Chapter 53 1. Population ecology is the study of the growth, abundance, and distribution of populations. Population abundance and distribution are described by the following terms: Define them. A. Size of the population: the number of individuals living inside the boundaries of the population B. Density of the population: number of individuals per unit area or volume C. Dispersion (which of the three type is most common): the pattern of spacing between the individuals within the boundaries of the population; clumped is the most common D. Age structure: the relative number of individuals of each age in a population E. Survivorship curves: plot of the proportion or numbers in a cohort still alive at each age 2. One species of forest bird is highly territorial, while a second lives in flocks. Predict each species' likely pattern of dispersion and explain. The bird that is territorial will most likely have uniform dispersion because each individual has its own section of territory The flocked birds will most likely be clumped because they will gather where the resources are favorable for living 3. Draw a chart showing the three types of survivorship curves. Distinguish between Survivorship curves Type I, II, and III. Give an example of an organism that displays each of these types of curves. Large mammals that provide good care for offspring are a type I curve. Type II has a constant death rate throughout the lifespan of the organism such as some rodents. Type III is when the organism produces large amounts of offspring and does not care for them such as many fishes do. 4. The traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival make up its life history. Life history traits are products of natural selection. There are two main types of life history traits: Describe and give an example of each type. 1. Big-bang reproduction or semelparity: the organism tries one time to reproduce and then dies afterward; Pacific salmon and agave plants do this 2. Repeated production or iteroparity: reproduce annually for several years; some lizards do this 5. How do the following terms describe population growth? biotic potential-plenty of resources means maximum reproductive capacity leading to exponential growth carrying capacity- the maximum population size that can be supported by the available resources, this means the population is going to level off limiting factors- density-dependent if they are density dependent then the death rate will rise and the birth rate will fall with a rising density If population density is high it means the population will be decrease due to disease, competition etc. density-independent birth or death rate that does not change with population density Population size is not affected by increase in population number. 6. Describe and diagram the two general patterns of population growth. They are exponential growth-growth of a population in an ideal, unlimited environment, represented by a J-shaped curve when population size is plotted over time logistic growth- per capita rate of increase approaches zero as the carrying capacity is reached 7. The logistic model and life history p. 1185 Compare the two life strategies of r-select and K-select organisms. -K selected species live in populations that are at or near equilibrium conditions for long periods of time. Competitive for limited resources is very important for the environment. ex. lemurs, giraffes, elephants, bats -R selected species live in populations that are highly variable. The fittest individuals in these environments have many offspring and reproduce early. ex. mosquitoes, Daphnia, goldenrod Chapter 54 1. Interspecific interactions are interactions of organisms with individuals of other species in the community. Describe the following interspecific interactions. Use the following symbols (+, -, o) to show how these interactions affect the survival and reproduction of two species that are involved. Competition -/- occurs when individuals or different species compete for same resources Predation +/- occurs when one species the predator kill and eats the other the prey Herbivory- ( +/- ) interaction in which an organism eats parts of a plant or alga Parasitism- ( +/- ) symbiotic interaction in which one organism, the parasite, derives its nourishment from another organism, its host, which is harmed in the process Mutualism- ( +/+ ) interaction that benefits both species Commensalism- ( +/0 ) benefits one of the species, but neither harms nor helps the other 2. The following concepts describe the two ways in which competition is resolved. The competitive exclusion princeple (Gause's principle)- two species competing for the same limiting resources cannot coexist in the same place. in the absence of disturbance, one species will use the resources more efficiently and this reproduce more rapidly than the other. even a slight reproductive advantage will eventually lead to local elimination of the inferior competition, an outcome called competitive seclusion Resource partitioning- the differentiation of niches that enables similar species to coexist in a community; “the ghost of competition past”- the indirect evidence of earlier interspecific competition resolved by the evolution of niche differentiation; when competition between species with identical niches does not lead to local extinction or either species, it is generally because one species' niche becomes modified- evolution by natural selection can result in one of the species using a different set of resources Character displacement (niche shift)- the tendency for characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations (geographically overlapping) of two species then in allopatric (geographically separate) populations of the same two species; example: variation in beak size between different populations of the Galapagos finches Realized niche- the portion of its fundamental niche that it actually occupies in a particular environment 3. Coevolution In the contest between predator and prey, some prey may have unique heritable characteristics that enable them to more successfully elude predators. Similarly, some predators may have characteristics that enable them to more successfully capture prey. The natural selection of characteristics that promote the most successful predators and the most elusive prey leads to coevolution of predator and prey. Coevolution is the evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species. These are some import examples of coevolution. Define these terms and tell how they have helped predators or prey to become more successful. Secondary compounds- are found in plants as products from bio-chemical pathways that are offshoots of basic metabolism. They are called secondary compounds because the compounds were not part of primary metabolism Camouflage (cryptic coloration)- makes prey difficult to spot; this is helpful to the prey so the predators have a harder time finding the prey to eat them Aposematic coloration (warning coloration)- animals with effective chemical defenses exhibit this; ex. poison of dart frog; seems to be adaptive: there is evidence that predators are particularly cautious in dealing with potential prey having bright color patterns Mullerian mimicry- two or more unpalatable species resemble each other; ex. cuckoo bee and yellow jacket; each species gains an additional advantage because the more unpalatable prey there are, the more quickly and effectively predators adapt, avoiding any prey with that particular appearance Batesian mimicry- palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful model; involves behavior; ex. larva of the hawkmoth puffs up its head and thorax when disturbed to look like the head of a small poisonous snake 4. Two dominant features of community structure are species diversity and feeding relationships. A. Describe the two components of species diversity. Species richness: number of different species in a community Relative abundance: proportion each species represent of all the individuals in the community B. Feeding relationships or the trophic structure of the community Describe each trophic level in the food chain Primary producers: plants and other autotrophic organisms Primary consumers: herbivores that eat the plants Secondary consumers: carnivores that eat the herbivores Tertiary consumers: carnivores that eat the previous carnivores Quaternary consumers: carnivores that eat the precious carnivores Decomposers: break down the dead organic matter 5. How does a food web differ from a food chain? food webs are made up of food chains that are linked together 6. Why are food chains relatively short? -energetic hypothesis: the length is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer along the chain -dynamic stability hypothesis: long food chains are less stable than short chains 7. Why do dominant species and keystone species exert strong controls on community structure? dominant species:because they are the most abundant or collectively have the highest biomass -keystone species: have pivotal ecological roles, or niches 8. Distinguish between primary and secondary succession. -primary succession: when ecological succession begins in a virtually lifeless area where soil has not yet formed -secondary succession: when an existing community has been cleared by some disturbance that leaves the soil intact 9. Give an example of primary succession. -when ecological succession begins on a new volcanic island or on the rubble left by a retreating glacier 10. Give an example of secondary succession. -Yellowstone following the 1988 fires