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European History Midterm Review
The renaissance
1.
2.
3.
Rise of the italian city-states
a. Urban centers
i. While the rest of europe was still rural, a number of cities prospered in northern italy
ii. By the late 1300s, florence, venice, and milan all had populations of about 100,000
b. Wealthy merchants
i. In the absence of hereditary kings, wealthy merchants formed oligarchies that governed the
independent city-states in northern italy
ii. Wealthy merchant families dominated political, economic, and artistic life in the northern italian
cities.
Florence and the medici
a. The primacy of florence
i. During the fifteenth century or quattrocento, florence became the acknowledged center of the
renaissance
ii. The golden age of florence was based on the wealth earned by its textile merchants and bankers.
b. The leadership of the medici
i. The medici family dominated florence’s economic, political, and artistic life for much of the
fifteenth century.
ii. The medici earned their wealth as bankers. Led by cosimo, piero, and lorenzo the magnificent, the
medici financed libraries, built churched, sponsored the platonic academy of philosophy, and
commissioned hundreds of artworks.
iii. The florentine renaissance reached its peaked during the lifetime of lorenzo the magnificent.
The renaissance spirit
a. The medieval mind set
i. Medieval thinkers believed that god had created the world to prepare humans for salvation or
eternal damnation. Human beings and their lives on earth were equally insignificant. The
individual was of no importance.
ii. Medieval artists did not win fame as individuals. The architects, glassmakers, and sculptors who
designed and decorated europe’s great cathedrals worked for the glory of god, not for personal
glory.
b. A new celebration of the individual
i. Unlike feudal nobles, italian merchants did not inherit their social rank. Success in business
depended mostly on the merchants’ own skill. As a result, prosperous merchants took pride in
their achievements. They believed they were successful because of their merit as individuals.
ii. Like the merchants, northern italian artists and writers were eager to be known and remembered
as individuals. From this time on, we know the names of people who created works of art. Fame
thus became a reward for superior talent.
iii. Portrait painting and autobiography illustrate the interest in individual personality and fame.
Wealthy patrons wanted their portraits recorded for posterity. Renaissance artists often included
self-portraits in their paintings. Autobiographies were written equivalents of self-portraits.
iv. Renaissance individualism stressed the importance of personality, the development of unique
talents, and the pursuit of fame and glory. By displaying the full range of human abilities, a
renaissance person demonstrated the highly-prized trait known as virtu.
v. In his famous oration on the dignity of man, giovanni pico della mirandola celebrated the human
potential for greatness.
c. Scholarship and the love of classical learning
i. Petrarch and other renaissance scholars scorned medieval art and literature. Petrarch summed up
the renaissance attitude by calling the medieval years “the dark ages”
ii. Scholars such as petrarch who studied the classical texts and cultures of ancient greece and rome
were called humanists.
iii. Inspired by classical authors, humanists rejected medieval scholasticism and instead advocated a
curriculum based on the study of greek and roman literature, rhetoric, and history. Humanists
believed that by studying the classics they would gain a more practical understanding of human
nature.
iv. Humanists played a key role in promoting the new liberal arts education, developing vernacular
language, and renewing interest in translating an preserving greek and roman manuscripts.
v.
4.
5.
6.
Lorenzo valla demonstrated the power of renaissance scholarship when ha used a careful
linguistic and historical analysis to demonstrate that the donation of constantine was actually a
clumsy forgery.
d. A new secular spirit
i. Medieval culture emphasized spiritual values and salvation
ii. Renaissance culture was far more interested in the pleasures of material possessions. Wealthy
renaissance families openly enjoyed fine music, expensive foods, and beautiful works of art.
Education and the ideal courtier
a. Humanist education
i. Medieval scholastics studied the classics to understand god. In contrast, renaissance humanists
studied the classics to understand human nature and learn practical skills.
ii. Leading humanists opened schools and academies that taught roman history, greek philosophy,
and latin grammar and rhetoric.
iii. Humanists believed that their classical curriculum would teach future business, political, and
military leaders how to become eloquent and persuasive speakers and writers.
b. Baldassare castiglione (1478-1529)
i. For renaissance humanists, the ideal individual strove to become a “universal man” who excelled
in many fields
ii. In his book the courtier, baldassare castiglione explained how upper-class man and women could
become accomplished courtiers.
iii. According to castiglione, the ideal courtier should be polite, charming, and witty. He should be
able to dance, write poetry, sing, and play music. In addition, he should be physically graceful and
strong.
iv. Castiglione did not ignore upper-class women. The perfect court lady, he said, should be well
educated and charming. Yet women were not expected to seek fame as men did. Like dante’s
beatrice and petrarch’s laura, they were expected to inspire poetry and art but rarely to create it.
Machiavelli and the prince
a. Turmoil in italy
i. The golden age of florence lasted nearly a century. Lorenzo the magnificient’s unexpected death
in 1492 left florence without a strong leader.
ii. In 1494, king charles viii of france invaded italy with the goal of conquering naples. Spain’s king
ferdinand soon contested the french claim to naples.
iii. These invasions sparked a series of conflicts called the hapsburg-valois wars that involved all the
major italian city-states. Diplomacy and war became the keys to survival.
b. Niccolo machiavelli
i. Machiavelli was a florentine diplomat and political philosopher. He is considered the founder of
modern political science.
ii. Machiavelli was appalled by the devastation caused by the habsburg-valois wars. “at this time, “
he passionately wrote, “the whole land of italy is without a head, without order, beaten, spoiled,
torn in pieces, overrun, and abandoned to destruction in every shape. She prays god to send
someone to rescue her from these barbarous cruelties.”
iii. Machiavelli wrote the prince to advise italian rulers on the ruthless statecraft needed to unite his
war-torn and divided italian homeland.
c. The qualities of a successful prince
i. Machiavelli had a pessimistic view of human nature. He believed that people are “ungrateful,
changeable, simulator and dissimulators, runaways in danger, eager for gain; while you do well by
them they are all yours’ they offer you their blood, their property, their lives, their children when
need is far off; but when it comes near you, they turn about.”
ii. Because human nature is selfish, untrustworthy, and corrupt, a prince must be as strong as a lion
and sHoly Roman Empirewd as a fox: “for the lion cannot protect himself from traps and the fox
cannot defend himself from wolves. One must therefore be a fox to recognize traps, and a lion to
fight wolves.”
iii. The successful ruler, machiavelli insisted, must be ruthless and pragmatic, always remembering
that the end justifies the means.
Italian renaissance
a. Patrons
i.
7.
Renaissance aratists were not independent contrators who produced works of art for themselves
or the public. Instead, they received commissions from the catholic church, guilds, and wealthy
families such as the medici.
ii. While these patrons appreciated the beauty of fine art, they also understood the ability of artists
to create visible symbols of power. Renaissance patons thus used art as a way of displaying their
wealth and promoting their fame.
b. Characteristics of renaissance arts
i. Perspective
1. Perspective is a geometric method of creating the illusion of depth on a flat, twodimensional surface.
2. Perspective enabled artists to create paintings that opened “a window on the world.”
This way of presenting space between the foundation of europe painting for the next
500 years.
ii. Chiaroscuro
1. Chiaroscuro is the realistic blending of light and shade to model forms.
2. Chiaroscuro creates the illusion of volume.
3. Chiaroscuro and perspective enabled artists to create paintings in which real people
seemed to occupy real space.
iii. Pyramid configuration
1. Byzantine and medieval art featured flat, rigid figures arranged in a horizontal line.
2. Renaissance artists used tHoly Roman Empiree-dimensional pyramid configurations to
create symmetrical and balanced compositions.
iv. Classical forms and christian subjects
1. Inspired by their study of greek and roman statues, renaissance artists attempted to
revive classical standards of beauty.
2. It is important to remember that renaissance artists did not aodon christian themes and
subjects. Rather, renaissance art often combined classical forms with christian subjects.
c. Key examples of renaissance art and architecture
i. Leon battista alberti, the west façade of sant’ andrea
1. Alberti broke with medieval traditions by eliminating statues and other traditional
features of gothis architecture.
2. Alberti’s ambitious design featured a roman triumphal arch framed by colossal
coorinthian pilasters. The pilasters supported a pediment inspired by classical temples.
3. Sant’ andrea marked a decisive break with christian building traditions. By achieving the
renaissance ideal of combining ancient forms with christian uses, alberti created a
“christian temple” that strongly influenced the design of future renaissance and
baroque churches.
ii. Michelangelo, david
1. David’s contrapposto (stiff right leg and relaxed left leg) pose recalls statues from greece
and rome
2. Like many classical statues, davic is a nude. However, unlike the serene classical statues,
david defiantly faces goliath, his muscular body is tense with gathering powewr as god’s
champion prepares for battle.
iii. Raphael, the school of athens
1. The schools of athens depicts a gathering of ancient philosophers from various eras. The
sages seem to move freely in a carefully designed tHoly Roman Empiree-dimensional
space.
2. The toga-clad figures of plato and aristotle dominate the center of the painting.
3. Raphael underscored the rising status of renaissance artist by including portraits of his
conteemporaris among thephilosophers. For example, plato is a portrait of leonardo de
vinci. Raphael also included a portrait of himself on the far right, loking out at the
viewer.
4. The school of athens brilliantly illustrates the renaissance ideals of order, unity, and
symmetry.
Women during the renaissance
a. The debate about women
i. The beginning of the ra\enaissance coincided with a “debate about women”
ii. Humanist scholars and others debated women’s character, nature, and role in society.
b.
c.
d.
Christine de pizan, the first feminist
i. Pizan was a prolific writer who became the first women in european history to earn a living as an
author.
ii. Pizan wrotea history of famous women designed to refute masculine myths about women. She is
now remembered as europe’s first feminist.
Castiglione and the perfect court lady
i. As mentioned earlier, castiglione believed the perfect cout lady should be attractive, well
educated, and able to paint, dance, and play a musical instrument.
ii. Although well educated, castiglione’s court lady was not expected to actively participate in
political, artistics, or literary affaits. Instead, she should be a pleasing and attractive ornament for
her upper-class husband
Isabella d’este, the first lady of the renaissance
i. Isabella d’este was a most famous renaissance women.
ii. She was born into the ruling family of ferrara and married the ruler of mantua.
iii. She was an art patron whose colelection included works by many of the greatest renaissance
artists.
iv. Her lifef illustrates that becoming a patron of the arts was the most socially acceptable role for a
well-educated renaissance women.
The northern renaissance
1.
2.
The northern renaissance
a. Contact with the italian renaissance.
i. During the late 1400s, students and artists from northern europe traveled to italy were they
become acquainted with the “new learning” and the new style of painting.
ii. At the same time, merchants from the low countries, france, germany, and england also visited
italy and learned about the advances of the ltalian renaissance.
b. christian humanism
i. northern humanists were often called christian humanists. Like their ltalian counterparts, the
christian humanists closely studied classical sources. However, they also sought to give humanism
a specifically christian content.
ii. Christian humanists wanted to combine the classical ideals of calmness and stoical patience with
the christian virtues of piety, humility, and love. They believed that this fusion would create the
best code of virtuous conduct.
iii. Christian humanists were committed to moral and institutional reform.
Key figures in the northern renaissance
a. Desiderius erasmus (1466-1536)
i. Known as the "prince of the humanists," erasmus was the most famous and influential humanist
of the northern renaissance.
ii. The greatest scholar of his age, erasmus edited the works of the church fathers and produced
greek and latin editions of the new testament.
iii. Erasmus is best known for writing the praise of folly, a witty satire that poked fun at greedy
merchants, pompous priests, and quarrelsome scholars. Erasmus saved his most stinging barbs for
the immorality and hypocrisy of church leaders, including pope julius ll.
iv. Erasmus was a devout catholic committed to reforming the church from within. It is important to
note the erasmus saw himself as a teacher of morality who wanted to reform the church, not
destroy it.
v. While most humanists wrote in the vernacular, erasmus continued to write in latin.
b. Thomas more (1478-1535)
i. More was the leading humanist scholar in england. A renowned author, lawyer, and statesman,
more held many high public offices including lord chancellor under henry vlll.
ii. More is best known for writing utopia (meaning "nowhere”), a novel describing an imaginary
society located somewhere off the mainland of the new world. The country of utopia featured
religious toleration, a humanist education for both men and women, and communal ownership of
property.
c. Michel de montaigne (1533-1592)
i. Montaigne was one of the most influential writers of the french renaissance.
ii.
3.
4.
5.
He is best known for popularizing the essay as a literary genre. Montaigne’s writings feature
numerous vivid anecdotes and a skeptical tone best illustrated by his famous question, que saisje? ("what do l know?").
The printing revolution
a. Johannes gutenberg and the printing press
i. Lohannes gutenberg is credited with inventing the first printing press with movable type. In 1456,
the first full work ever printed by movable type, the mazarin bible, was published.
ii. Printing quickly spread across europe. By 1500, presses in over 200 cities printed between 8
million and 20 million books, far more than the number of books produced in all of previous
western history.
b. Impact of the printing press
i. the printing press enabled the works of humanists such as erasmus and more to be quickly
disseminated across europe.
ii. The profusion of printing technology made it difficult for authorities to suppress dissenting views.
Northern renaissance art
a. Characteristics
i. Northern renaissance artists were the first to use and perfect oil painting.
ii. the new oil paints enabled renaissance artists to paint reality precisely as it appeared. Their works
are renowned for meticulous details of everyday objects.
iii. Many of the everyday objects in northern renaissance paintings are actually disguised symbols.
For example, in the arnolfini wedding, the dog represents fidelity and the discarded shoes are a
sign that a religious ceremony is taking place. It is interesting to note that people believed that
touching the ground with bare feet ensured fertility.
b. Key artists
i. jan van eyck (1390-1441)
1. Van eyck was the most acclaimed flemish artist of the fifteenth century.
2. He was one of the pioneers in oil painting.
3. Van eyck is best known for the ghent altarpiece and the arnolfini wedding.
ii. Albrecht diirer (1471-1528)
1. Diirer was the first northern renaissance artist to fully
absorb the innovations of the
italian renaissance.
2. He is best known for his woodcuts and self-portraits.
iii. Hans holbein the younger (1497-1543)
1. Like dfirer, holbein blended the northern renaissance’s love of precise realism with the
italian renaissance’s love of balanced proportion and perspective.
2. His best-known works are his realistic portraits of henry viii and thomas more.
The new monarchs
a. Characteristics of medieval kings
i. Medieval kings received most of their income from their own estates and from grants of money
from their vassals.
ii. Medieval kings marched to war followed by an army of vassals who owed military service in
exchange for land.
iii. Medieval kings relied upon nobles for advice and counsel.
iv. Medieval kings shared power with the church and were often subordinate to the pope.
b. Characteristics of the new monarchs
i. The new monarchs retained their feudal income while also taxing towns, merchants, and
peasants.
ii. The new monarchs created professional armies that were paid from the royal treasury.
iii. The new monarchs created a more centralized administrative bureaucracy that relied upon
educated and loyal middle-class officials.
iv. The new monarchs negotiated a new relationship with the catholic church.
c. France
i. Charles vll (reigned 1422-1461)
1. Charles vll successfully concluded the hundred years’ war by expelling the english from
france.
2. He strengthened royal finances through such taxes as the taille (on land) and the gabelle
(on salt). These two taxes were the main source of royal income for the next tHoly
Roman Empiree centuries.
ii.
iii.
d.
e.
f.
3. He created the first permanent royal army.
Louis xl (reigned 1461 -1 483)
1. Louis x i further enlarged the royal army.
2. He encouraged economic growth by promoting new industries such as silk weaving.
Francis i (reigned 1515-1547)
1. Francis i was the first french king to be called ”your majesty. ”
2. He reached an agreement with pope leo x known as the concordat of bologna (1516),
which authorized the king to nominate bishops, abbots, and other high officials of the
catholic church in france. This agreement gave the french monarch administrative
control over the church.
England
i. Henry vii (reigned 1485-1509)
1. Henry vi! Created a special court known as the star chamber as a political weapon to try
prominent nobles. Court sessions were held in secret with no right of appeal, no juries,
and no witnesses.
2. He used justices of the peace to extend royal authority into the local shires.
3. He encouraged the wool industry and expanded the english merchant marine.
ii. Henry viii (reigned 1509-1547)
1. Henry viii declared the king the supreme head of the church of england, thus severing
england's ties with the catholic church.
2. He dissolved the monasteries and confiscated their land and wealth.
Spain
i. the iberian peninsula in the mid-fifteenth century
1. During this time, the iberian peninsula enjoyed a rich cultural diversity that included
prominent jewish and muslim communities.
2. The kingdoms of castile and aragon dominated navarre and portugal. The muslims held
only the small kingdom of granada.
ii. Ferdinand (reigned 1479-1516) and isabella (reigned 1474- 1504)
1. The marriage of ferdinand of aragon and isabella of castile ( 14 69) created a dynastic
union of the iberian peninsula’s two most powerful royal houses.
2. Ferdinand and isabella reduced the number of nobles on the royal council.
3. Ferdinand and isabella completed the reconquista by conquering granada and
incorporating it into the spanish kingdom.
4. Isabella decreed that in a christian state, there could be only ”one king, one low, one
faith.” She and ferdinand established the inquisition to enforce religious conformity.
5. In 1492, ferdinand and isabella issued an edict expelling all practicing lews from spain.
Ten years later, they demanded that all muslims adopt christianity or leave spain.
Consequences
i. The new monarchs consolidated royal power and created the foundation for modern nationstates in france, england, and spain.
ii. It is important to remember that the new monarchs did not gain absolute power. The age of
absolutism would not occur until the seventeenth century
The Reformation
1.
LUTHERANISM
a. MARTIN LUTHER’S PERSONAL QUEST FOR SALVATION
i. Luther's early life was dominated by a private struggle to find the key to personal salvation.
ii. The Catholic Church taught that salvation could be achieved by both good works and faith. For
many long years, Luther struggled to follow this dual path to salvation. However, he was
overwhelmed by a deep sense of personal guilt.
iii. After many years of study, Luther began to examine St. Paul's Letter to the Romans. One evening,
Luther read Paul's admonition that "the just shall be saved by faith.”
iv. Luther's arduous years of study prepared him for this fateful moment. At last he understood that
salvation was a gift freely given by God.
b. NINETY-FIVE THESES
i. Luther's spiritual journey seemed to culminate in a personal revelation. But then historic events
intersected with his life.
ii. In 1517, Luther witnessed lohann Tetzel selling indulgences near Vlfittenberg. In Luther's time, an
indulgence was a certificate granted by the pope in return for the payment of a fee to the church.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
The certificate stated that the soul of the dead relative or friend of the purchaser would have his
time in purgatory reduced by many years or cancelled altogether.
iii. Part of the income from the indulgences sold by Tetzel was destined for Rome to help pay for the
construction of the new St. Peter's Basilica.
iv. Tetzel's aggressive marketing tactics appalled Luther. He believed that salvation could not be sold
by the pope; it was a free gift given by God.
v. On October 31, 1517, Luther dramatically nailed his Ninety- five Theses to the door
of Castle Church in VVttenberg. Aided by the printing press, Luther's defiant challenge was soon
disseminated across Europe. Vlfithin a short time, he became the most famous and controversial
person in Europe.
LUTHER'S KEY BELIEFS
i. Salvation is achieved by faith alone.
1. The Catholic Church had long taught that salvation could be achieved by both faith and
good works.
2. Luther insisted that faith was the only path to salvation.
ii. The Bible is the only valid authority for Christian life.
1. The Catholic Church taught that authority rests in both the Bible and the traditional
teachings of the church.
2. Luther insisted that all church teachings should be based on the Word of God as
revealed in the Bible.
3. Based upon his study of the Bible, Luther argued that Christ established just two
sacraments: baptism and the Eucharist or holy communion. Luther thus rejected the
Catholic teaching that there were seven sacraments.
iii. The church consists of a priesthood of all believers.
1. The Roman Catholic Church was a hierarchical organization led by the pope.
2. Luther insisted that because all Christians are spiritually equal, the church consists of
the entire community of the Christian faithful.
iv. All vocations have equal merit.
1. The Catholic Church taught that the monastic life was superior to the secular life.
2. Luther rejected this belief, arguing that all honest work has equal merit. Each person
should serve God in his or her own individual calling.
3. Luther abolished monasteries and convents. He declared that the clergy should marry.
THE GERMAN PEASANTS’ WAR, 1525
i. Causes
1. German peasants originally supported Luther. They heard his message as one that
promised freedom from oppression by the landlords and the clergy.
2. Complaints that nobles had seized village common lands and imposed exorbitant rents
soon escalated to open attacks on monasteries, castles, and prosperous farms.
ii. Luther's response
1. The peasants believed Luther would support them. Luther, however, believed that
Christians ought to obey their rulers—even unjust rulers—and that rebellion against the
state was always wrong and must be crushed.
2. Horrified at the prospect of a bloody revolution, Luther urged the German nobility to
crush the rebels.
iii. Consequences
1. The German Peasants’ War of 1525 strengthened the authority of the German nobility.
2. Lutheranism became closely allied with the established political order controlled by the
German nobility.
LUTHER AND THE ROLE OF CHRISTIAN WOMEN
i. The elimination of monasteries and convents was a key factor in changing the role of sixteenthcentury women.
ii. Luther believed that Christian women should strive to be models of obedience and Christian
charity.
THE SPREAD OF LUTHERANISM
i. Lutheranism became the dominant religion in northern and eastern Germany. It is important to
remember that most of southern Germany, Austria, and the Rhineland remained Roman Catholic.
ii. Lutheranism became the predominant religion in Denmark and Scandinavia.
THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG, 1555
i.
2.
3.
Between 1546 and 1555, a religious civil war between Catholics led by Charles V and Protestants
led by German princes tore Germany apart. it is important to note that the Catholic king of France
supported the Protestant nobles. This is an example of the long-standing French policy of
maintaining a divided Germany.
ii. The Peace of Augsburg ended the civil war. The settlement gave each German prince the right to
determine the religion of his state, either Roman Catholic or Lutheran. The Peace of Augsburg did
not provide for the recognition of Calvinists and other religious minorities.
h. WAS LUTHER A REVOLUTIONARY OR A CONSERVATIVE?
i. Luther was a religious revolutionary.
1. Luther's core beliefs went well beyond attempting to reform the Roman Catholic
Church. His doctrines of justification by faith, priesthood of all believers, and the Bible
as the sole authority marked a major departure from long-standing Catholic principles.
2. Luther's revolutionary actions included abolishing monasteries, reducing the number of
sacraments, encouraging priests to marry, and repudlating the pope's authority to
interpret the Bible.
ii. Luther was a political conservative.
1. Luther insisted that Christians owed obedience to established authority.
2. Luther gave his support to the German nobility as they brutally suppressed the peasant
rebellion.
CALVINISM
a. JOHN CALVlN'S KEY BELIEFS
i. Calvin's doctrines are clearly and systematically explained in his landmark book, The Institutes of
the Christian Religion.
ii. Calvin asserted that while God is just, perfect, and omnipotent, humans are corrupt, weak, and
insignificant.
iii. Since men and women are by nature sinful, they cannot actively work to achieve salvation.
Because God is all- knowing, he has "determined, both whom he would admit to salvation and
whom he would condemn to destruction." This "terrible decree" constitutes the theological
principle called predestination.
iv. By God's grace, a very few people will be saved from sin. Calvin called these people the ”elect."
v. Calvin taught that the elect have a duty to rule society so as to glorify God. The ideal government
should therefore be a theocracy in which church leaders dominate civil authorities.
vi. Calvin and Luther agreed on many fundamental points of theology. However, they disagreed on
the emphasis placed upon predestination and the relationship between church and civil
authorities. While Luther believed that the church should be subordinated to the state, Calvin
stressed that the elect have a duty to Christianize the state.
b. GENEVA, "CITY OF SAlNTS"
i. In 1541, Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland, asked Calvin to transform their city into a model
Christian community.
ii. Calvin and his followers regulated all aspects of life in Geneva. They suppressed frivolous
activities such as playing cards, dancing, and attending the theater. At the same time, they strictly
enforced a high standard of morality that included regular church attendance.
c. THE SPREAD OF CALVINISM
i. Protestant reformers from France, England, and Scotland hailed Calvin's Geneva as "the most
perfect school of Christ since the days of the Apostles." Geneva thus became both the center of
Calvin‘s reformed church and a compelling model for other Protestant leaders.
ii. In the late 1550s, John Knox brought Calvinism to Scotland. Wlhthin a decade, the Presbyterian
Church founded by Knox and his followers became the basis for Scotland's established religion.
iii. 3. Calvinism soon spread to France, where followers were called Huguenots.
iv. Calvinists also founded Puritan churches in England and later in New England.
ANGLICANISM
a. HENRY Vlll (REIGNED 1509-1547)
i. The "Defender of the Faith"
1. Henry VIII was a devout Catholic who detested Luther.
2. Henry wrote a pamphlet calling Luther ”a great limb of the Devil. " Impressed by
Henry's loyalty, the pope gave him a special title, "Defender of the Faith.”
ii. The problem of succession
1. Henry's political needs proved more important than his loyalty to the pope.
2.
b.
c.
d.
Since Henry was only the second king of the Tudor dynasty, he was determined to have
a male heir. When his wife, Catherine of Aragon, failed to give birth to a son, Henry
asked Pope Clement VI! to annul the marriage.
3. The pope would normally have granted Henry's request. However, Catherine of Aragon
was the aunt of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. At the time of Henry's request,
Charles’s armies controlled Rome. Caught between the plea of a distant English king
and the immediate presence of a powerful Holy Roman emperor, the pope delayed and
finally refused to annul Henry's marriage.
iii. The Act of Supremacy, 1534
1. Thwarted by the pope, Henry turned to a radical solution to solve his marriage problem.
2. 15 3 3, Henry defied the pope and married Anne Boleyn.
3. The following year; Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy. This landmark act
declared the English king to be the ”Protector and Only Supreme Head of the Church
and Clergy of England. ”
4. Although Henry VIII rejected papal supremacy, he remained a devout Catholic. In
15 3 9, Parliament approved the Six Articles defining the doctrine of the English Church.
With the sole exception of papal supremacy, the Six Articles reaffirmed Catholic
teachings while rejecting Protestant beliefs.
iv. Dissolution of the monasteries
1. Beginning in 15 36, Parliament passed acts closing all English monasteries and seizing
their lands.
2. Henry sold much of the land to nobles and to members of England's increasingly
prosperous merchant class.
3. Enriched by the monastic lands, these groups became loyal supporters of the Tudor
dynasty.
MAKING COMPARISONS: HENRY Vlll AND MARTIN LUTHER
i. On first glance, Henry VIII and Martin Luther had very little in common. Henry rejected Luther's
core doctrines, and the two exchanged derisive pamphlets filled with insults. Guided by his faith,
Luther wanted to reform and then change the Catholic Church. Guided by his dynastic interests,
Henry wanted a male heir in order to avoid a potentially bloody succession.
ii. Henry VIII and Martin Luther had very different religious beliefs and motives. Nonetheless, they
shared similar political attitudes. Both believed that the church should be subordinate to the
state. Both Henry Vlll and Martin Luther rejected papal authority. in addition, both followed
policies intended to strengthen the nobility. As we have seen, Luther supported the nobility by
encouraging them to suppress the rebellious peasants. Henry supported the nobility by allowing
them to purchase monastic lands.
ELIZABETH I (REIGNED 1558-1603)
i. Religious issues
1. Elizabeth I inherited a difficult religious problem. Since Henry Vlll’s break with Rome
in 1534, royal religious policy had changed direction several times.
2. Protestants gained strength under Edward VI (reigned 15 4 7-1 5 5 3). Catholics
experienced a renewal under Mary (reigned 1553-1558).
ii. The Elizabethan Settlement
1. Elizabeth was a politique who placed political necessities above her personal beliefs.
She therefore strove to find a middle course that moderate Catholics and moderate
Protestants would accept.
2. The Elizabethan Settlement restored the Church of England. Also known as the Anglican
Church, the Church of England allowed priests to marry and to conduct sermons in
English. However; the Church of England retained archbishops and bishops who wore
elaborate robes and conducted services that remained formal and traditional.
3. Although Protestant in tone, the Church of England instituted dogmas that were
deliberately broad and often ambiguous.
MAKING COMPARISONS: ISABELLA OF SPAIN AND ELIZABETH I OF ENGLAND
i. Both Queen lsabella of Spain and Queen Elizabeth I of England shared the goal of ruling over a
united country. However, they followed dramatically different religious policies to achieve this
goal.
ii. Isabella was a devout Roman Catholic who decreed that in a Christian state, there could be only
"one king, one law, one faith." She revived the Inquisition, conquered Muslim- controlled
iii.
4.
Grenada, and forced lews and Muslims to become Christians or leave Spain. Her actions created
religious unity but at the price of harming Spain's economy.
Elizabeth was a politique. Although raised a Protestant, her religious views are largely unknown.
What mattered most to Elizabeth was not the religious beliefs of her subjects but their loyalty.
The wanted to avoid destructive religious civil wars. It was not her intention, she said, "to pry
windows into men's souls." Elizabeth's reign marked the beginning of a cultural golden age and a
period of sustained economic growth and prosperity.
ANABAPTISM
a. ANABAPTIST BELIEFS
i. Anabaptists, or rebaptizers, opposed infant baptism, insisting that only adult baptism conformed
to Scripture.
ii. Anabaptists advocated complete separation of church and state.
b. ANABAPTIST LEADERS
i. Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists all condemned Anabaptist leaders as radicals.
ii. Modern historians have labeled Thomas Munzer a ”left wing" Anabaptist leader because he
advocated the overthrow of the existing political and social order. Munzer was executed in1 525.
The Catholic Reformation and the Wars of Religion
1.
THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION
a. THE REFORMATION POPES
i. Renaissance popes such as lulius ll concentrated their energies on commissioning art, building a
new St. Peter's, and enhancing the power of their own families.
ii. Beginning with Pope Paul Ill (1534-1549), a new generation of popes committed themselves to
appointing reform- minded officials, enforcing strict moral standards, and creating new religious
orders.
b. THE COUNCIL OF TRENT
i. Reaffirmed Catholic doctrines
1. The Council of Trent rejected Luther's doctrine of justification by faith and reaffirmed
that salvation is achieved by both faith and good works.
2. The council rejected the Protestant belief in the supremacy of the Bible and reaffirmed
that equal weight should be given to Scripture and to traditional Catholic teachings.
3. It rejected Luther's contention that there were just two sacraments and reaffirmed that
there were seven sacraments.
ii. Reformed church abuses
1. The council decreed that indulgence: should no longer be sold in exchange for financial
contributions.
2. It forbade simony, the sale of church offices.
3. The council instructed bishops to live in the dioceses they served.
iii. Reasserted traditional practices
1. The council reaffirmed the veneration of relics and images as valid expressions of
Christian piety.
2. It confirmed the Vulgate as the authoritative Catholic edition of the Bible.
3. It decreed that Latin continue to be the language of worship.
iv. Resisted limiting papal authority
1. The council ruled that no act of a council could be valid unless accepted by the Holy See.
2. It preserved the papacy as the center of Catholic unity.
c. THE JESUITS
i. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)
1. Ignatius was an unknown Spanish soldier who suffered a severe injury while fighting the
French.
2. During his recovery Ignatius experienced a religious conversion. He resolved to become
a soldier of Christ and dedicate his life to fighting for the pope and the Catholic Church.
ii. Society of lesus
1. ln 1540, Pope Paul III formally authorized the Society of lesus. Those who joined were
called Jesuits.
2. Led by Ignatius, the Jesuits were a spiritual amvy that emphasized iron discipline and
absolute obedience.
3.
iii.
2.
3.
Ignatius wrote The Spiritual Exercises, detailing a system of disciplined meditation,
prayer; and study.
Activities of the lesuits
1. Catholic education: lesuits founded hundreds of schools for middle- and upper-class
boys. lesuits were especially prominent as confessors and advisors to royal families.
2. Missionary work: Jesuit missionaries played a key role in preaching Christianity in the
Americas and Asia.
3. Combating Protestantism: Jesuits spearheaded the revival of Catholicism in Bavaria, the
southern Netherlands, and Poland.
BAROQUE ART
a. PURPOSE OF BAROQUE ART
i. The Protestant Reformation represented the greatest challenge to the Catholic Church since the
Roman persecutions of the third century. Led by a series of reform popes, the Church launched a
Catholic Counter-Reformation to halt the spread of Protestantism and reenergize the faithful.
ii. The Council of Trent reaffirmed that works of art should be employed to stimulate piety. Painters,
sculptors, and architects tried to speak to the faithful by creating dramatic works of art that
involved worshippers.
b. CHARACTERISTICS OF BAROQUE ART
i. Dramatic use of light and dark called tenebrism
ii. Subject matter focused on dramatic moments
iii. Portrayal of everyday people who are not idealized
iv. Baroque buildings featuring grandiose scale and ornate decorations
c. KEY EXAMPLES OF ITALIAN BAROQUE ART
i. Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Boldachino inside Saint Peter's
ii. Michelangelo de Caravaggio, The Calling of Saint Matthew
iii. Artemisia Gentileschi, judith Slaying Holofernes
THE WARS OF KING PHILIP II OF SPAIN
a. PHILIP'S EMPIRE
i. Emperor Charles V abdicated his many thrones in 1556. He left his territories in Austria, Bohemia,
and Hungary to his brother Ferdinand.
ii. Charles left his son Philip a vast empire that included Spain, Milan, Naples, the Netherlands, and
the overseas empire in the Americas.
b. PHILIP’S GOALS
i. To advance Spanish power in Europe
ii. To champion Catholicism in Europe
iii. To defeat the Ottoman Turks in the eastern Mediterranean
c. BATTLE OF LEPANTO, 1571
i. A combined Spanish-Venetian fleet defeated the Turkish navy at Lepanto off the coast of Greece.
ii. The victory enhanced Philip's prestige as a champion of Catholicism.
d. THE DEFEAT OF PHILIP: THE NETHERLANDS
i. When Philip succeeded to the throne, the Spanish Netherlands consisted of 17 largely Catholic
provinces. Philip tHoly Roman Empireatened traditional liberties by imposing the Inquisition and
dispatching troops to support it. Philip's ill-considered actions provoked riots against the Spanish
authorities.
ii. Philip responded to this challenge by sending 20,000 additional troops. Led by the ruthless Duke
of Alva, the Spaniards levied new taxes and sentenced thousands to death.
iii. Alva's brutal actions united the Netherlands against the Spanish. During the struggle, many
showed their opposition to Spain by converting to Calvinism.
iv. A new Spanish viceroy, the Duke of Parma, adopted more skillful tactics. By substituting
diplomacy for force, Parma was able to induce the ten southern provinces to reaffirm their loyalty
to Spain.
v. Led by the province of Holland, the Dutch in the seven northern provinces could not be won back.
In 1581, they boldly declared their independence from Spain.
vi. The war for control of the Netherlands continued until 1609. Under the terms of a truce,
the 7 northern and now heavily Calvinist provinces gained their independence and were known as
Dutch. The 10 Catholic southern provinces were known as the Spanish Netherlands.
e. THE DEFEAT OF PHILIP: ENGLAND
i. The English felt tHoly Roman Empireatened by Philip's aggressive actions in the Netherlands.
ii.
4.
5.
Queen Elizabeth openly assisted the Dutch rebels with money and troops. She also encouraged
English sea captains to raid Spanish treasure ships.
iii. Outraged by Elizabeth's interference, Philip assembled a huge fleet known as the Spanish Armada
to invade England. Philip hoped to depose Elizabeth and return England to Catholicism.
iv. Harassed by fast English ships, the powerful but slow-moving Spanish Armada never reached
England. Only 67 of the Armada’s original 130 ships returned to Spain.
f. CONSEQUENCES OF PHiLiP’S DEFEATS
i. Although still a formidable military power, Spain began a long period of political and economic
decline.
ii. Now independent, the Dutch began a golden age of commercial prosperity and artistic creativity.
iii. As Spain's influence declined, England's power increased. The English were now free to develop
their overseas trade and to colonize North America.
The French Wars of Religion
a. The catholics
i. As we have seen (chapter 4), under the terms of the Concordat of Bologne (1516), Francis l
recognized the supremacy of the papacy over a universal council. In return, French rulers gained
the right to appoint all French bishops and abbots.
ii. As a result of the Concordat of Bologna, the ruling Valois kings had no reason to support a revolt
against Rome.
b. THE HUGUENOTS
i. Despite royal opposition, Calvinist ideas gained a strong foothold in France. By the 1560s, onetenth of France's 18 million people had become Calvinists, also known as Huguenots.
ii. Calvinism had special appeal to French nobles. By the 1560s, between two-fifths and one-half of
the nobility had become Calvinists. For many nobles, Calvinism provided a means of expressing
opposition to the Valois kings.
c. THE SAINT BARTHOLOMEW’S DAY MASSACRE, 1572
i. The growing strength of the Huguenots alarmed the French king Charles lX and his powerful
mother Catherine de' Medici.
ii. With Catherine's support, Catholics killed thousands of Huguenots gathered in Paris to celebrate
the wedding of Margaret of Valois to the Huguenot leader Henry of Navarre. The violence quickly
spread to the provinces, where as many as 20,000 Huguenots were killed.
iii. The Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre ignited a bloody civil war between Catholics and
Huguenots that continued for 15 years.
d. THE POLITIQUES
i. The civil war devastated French agriculture and commerce.
ii. A small group of moderate Catholics and Huguenots realized that the disorder and destruction
had to be stopped or France would collapse. Known as politiques, they supported a strong
monarchy and official recognition of the Huguenots.
iii. The death of Catherine de' Medici followed by the assassinations of the powerful Catholic Duke of
Guise and King Henry Ill paved the way for the accession of Henry of Navarre, a leading politique
who became Henry IV in 1589.
e. THE EDICT OF NANTES, 1598
i. Henry lV was the leader of the House of Bourbon and a Huguenot.
ii. Many Catholics, including the people of Paris, still opposed Henry. Knowing that a majority of the
French were Catholics, Henry chose to become a Catholic saying, "Paris is worth a mass.”
iii. In 1598, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes proclaiming the toleration of Calvinism and recognizing
the rights of French Protestants.
iv. Henry's decision to convert and issue the Edict of Nantes saved France and prepared the way for
the resurgence of royal power in the seventeenth century.
THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR, 1618-1648
a. THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE IN 1600
i. The Holy Roman Empire included approximately 300 small principalities, duchies, and
independent cities.
ii. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 (see Chapter 5) gave each German prince the right to determine
the religion of his state, either Roman Catholic or Lutheran.
iii. The Peace of Augsburg did not provide for the recognition of Calvinists. Nonetheless, a number of
states, including the Palatinate, had adopted Calvinism.
b. CAUSES OF THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR
i.
c.
d.
e.
Religious divisions
1. In 1608, the Protestant states formed the Protestant Union to defend their interests.
2. The following year the Catholic states formed the Catholic League to defend their
interests.
ii. Political divisions
1. The Austrian Habsburgs wanted to reverse the Protestant gains while building a
stronger monarchy.
2. the German principalities and independent cities were jealous of their rights and
resisted any attempt at centralization.
iii. international interference
1. France opposed any policy that would create a strong power in Germany So, although
France was a Catholic power; it allied itself with Protestant princes.
2. The Lutheran kings of Denmark and Sweden were prepared to defend Protestant
interests in the Holy Roman Empire.
THE FOUR PHASES OF THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR
i. The Bohemian Phase, 1618-1625
1. The Thirty Years’ War began as a religious civil war in Bohemia between the Catholic
League led by Emperor Ferdinand ll and the Protestant Union led by Frederick V
2. Emperor Ferdinand ll's forces won a series of victories that left the Habsburgs and
Catholics in control of Bohemia.
ii. The Danish Phase, 1625-1629
1. Supported by the Dutch and English, King Christian l\/, the Lutheran ruler of Denmark,
intervened to support the Protestants.
2. Led by Albert of Wallenstein, the imperial armies crushed the Protestant forces.
3. Flushed with victory; Emperor Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution restoring all
Catholic properties lost to the Protestants since 1552.
iii. The Swedish Phase, 1630-1635
1. Alarmed by the Catholic victories, the Protestants, Dutch, and French turned for help to
the Lutheran king of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus.
2. A charismatic ruler and brilliant military strategist, Gustavus Adolphus defeated
Wallenstein and the imperial forces in a series of decisive battles.
3. The Swedish victories prevented the Habsburgs from uniting the German states.
iv. The French Phase, 1635-1648
1. The death of Gustavus Adolphus prompted France to intervene on the Protestant side.
2. French, Dutch, and Swedish armies burned Gennan farms and destroyed German
commerce.
THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA, 1648
i. The setting
1. Hundreds of diplomats representing the German states, France, Sweden, Spain, the
Dutch and the pope met in Westphalia.
2. Although represented at Westphalia, the pope's objections were largely ignored,
underscoring the degree of secularization taking place in Europe.
ii. The provisions
1. Each of the over 300 German states received the right to conduct diplomacy and make
treaties.
2. Rulers were allowed to decide the religious faith in their territory. Calvinism was
recognized as an acceptable faith.
3. The independence of the Dutch Republic and neutrality of Switzerland were formally
recognized.
4. The French annexed part of Alsace.
5. Sweden received additional territory around the Baltic Sea.
CONSEQUENCES OF THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR
i. For Germany
1. The Thirty Years’ War devastated the German economy and decimated its population.
As many as one-third of the German-speaking people died from disease, famine, and
combat.
2. Germany's long-term commercial growth suffered because the Treaty of Westphalia
gave control of the mouth of the Rhine River to the Dutch.
3.
ii.
The Thirty Years’ War left Germany politically fragmented, thus delaying German
unification for two centuries.
For France
1. France achieved its primary goals of weakening the Habsburgs and keeping the Holy
Roman Empire weak and divided.
2. France emerged as the strongest power in Europe.
The Age of Exploration and the Commercial Revolution
1.
2.
3.
Factors that encouraged European Overseas Explorations
a. THE RENAISSANCE SPIRIT OF lNDlVlDUALlSM
i. The explorers embodied the same spirit of individualism and curiosity that characterized
Renaissance artists and humanist scholars.
ii. The renewed interest in ancient writings that inspired Renaissance artists also gave the explorers
new knowledge about mathematics, astronomy, and geography.
b. THE SEARCH FOR SPICES AND PROFITS
i. The Crusades helped stimulate a growing demand for Indian pepper, Chinese ginger, and Malukan
cloves and nutmeg.
ii. By the fourteenth century, European demand for Asian spices and luxury items far exceeded the
supply. Muslims and Venetians controlled trade routes to the East.
iii. The new monarchs in Spain and Portugal wanted direct access to the lucrative Asian markets.
c. THE DESIRE TO CULTIVATE CASH CROPS
i. A strong and growing demand for sugar motivated Europeans to look for lands suitable for
cultivating this prized cash crop.
ii. Europeans hoped to find lands where they could establish sugar plantations.
d. THE DESIRE TO SPREAD CHRISTIANITY
i. The Crusades left a legacy of hostility between Christians and Muslims.
ii. Led by Spain and Portugal, Europeans hoped to reconquer northern Africa from the Muslims.
iii. Europeans believed they had a duty to spread Christianity.
e. THE ABILITY TO USE NEW TECHNOLOGY
i. The newly designed caravel had square sails for running before the wind and triangular sails for
tacking into the wind.
ii. The magnetic compass and the astrolabe enabled mariners to determine their location at sea.
PORTUGAL: EAST BY SEA TO AN EMPIRE OF SPICES
a. A. PRINCE HENRY THE NAVIGATOR (1394-1460)
i. Prince Henry organized voyages along the west coast of Africa.
ii. By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, the Portuguese had established a series of trading
posts along the West African coast. These posts did a thriving business in gold and slaves.
b. THE PORTUGUESE TRADING-POST EMPIRE
i. Key explorers
1. Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope and returned to Portugal in 1488.
2. Vasco da Gama reached the Malabar coast of India in 7498 and returned to Portugal
with a cargo of pepper and cinnamon worth 60 times the cost of the expedition.
3. Pedro Cabral accidentally discovered Brazil in 1500 while sailing to India. He returned to
Portugal with 300,000 pounds of spices.
ii. Commercial trading posts
1. The Portuguese did not attempt to conquer territories. Instead, they built fortified
trading posts designed to control trade routes.
2. The most important Portuguese trading posts were located at Goa on the Indian coast,
at Malacca on the Malay peninsula, and at Macao on the southern coast of China.
c. CONSEQUENCES
i. The Portuguese ended the Venetian and Muslim monopoly of trade with Asia.
ii. The center of European commerce shifted from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean.
iii. The new sea routes reduced the importance of the Baltic Sea thus leading to the decline of the
Hanseatic League.
Spain: West by sea to a new world
a. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS (1451-1506)
i.
4.
Although he believed he had reached Asia, Columbus had in fact discovered Caribbean islands
that were part of a vast New World.
ii. Columbus’s voyages helped to propel Spain into the forefront of European exploration, conquest,
and settlement.
b. THE SPANISH CONQUESTS
i. Hernando Cortes conquered the Aztec empire in Mexico (1519-1521).
ii. Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca empire in Peru (1532- 1533).
c. SPANISH AMERICA
i. By the end of the sixteenth century, Spain possessed an American empire twenty times its own
size.
ii. The Aztecs and other indigenous peoples were converted to Christianity and became subjects of
the Spanish king.
iii. The king of Spain governed his American empire through a Council of the Indies in Spain and
through viceroys in Mexico City and Lima, Peru
THE commercial revolution
a. CAUSES
i. New ocean trade routes
1. The trade in spices, sugar, and precious metals brought great wealth to the European
trading nations.
2. The wealth supported increased investment and a wide array of new economic
ventures.
ii. Growth of population
1. The introduction of new foods played a key role in supporting population growth.
2. The population of Europe increased from 70 million in 1500 to 90 million in 1600.
3. The steady rise in population increased overall demand for goods and services.
iii. Price revolution
1. During the sixteenth century, the western European economy experienced a steady
inflation in prices.
2. The influx of gold and silver from the New World and the rising demand created by the
growth of population contributed to the price revolution.
iv. New nation-centered economic system
1. Prior to 1500, the western European economy was organized around towns and guilds.
Both relied upon strict regulations to ensure their survival. As a result, there was very
little innovation.
2. as commercial activity increased, a new nation-centered economic system began to
replace the old town-and- guild framework.
b. KEY FEATURES
i. New entrepreneurs
1. The expansion of commercial activity created large geographic markets. The new
trading areas opened new opportunities while also requiring a new kind of economic
leadership.
2. as the commercial revolution replaced the town-and-guild framework, merchants and
bankers emerged as influential and successful entrepreneurs.
3. The Italian Medici family and the German Fuggers were prominent examples of the new
economic entrepreneurs.
ii. New industries
1. The printing press created a national and even international market for books.
2. The new ocean trading routes sparked a rise in shipbuilding.
3. The emergence of nation-states supported the large- scale manufacture of cannons and
muskets.
iii. New domestic or putting-out system
1. Strict guild regulations stifled competition and restricted production.
2. In order to avoid the restrictive guild system, entrepreneurs provided cloth, looms, and
other equipment to rural families.
3. The putting-out or domestic system led to a significant increase in the production of
cloth and other manufactured goods.
iv. New joint-stock companies
1.
2.
3.
c.
d.
I.
The new international trade required unprecedented amounts of capital. For example,
merchants had to arm their ships, buy special privileges for local authorities, and build
trading posts. Wars, storms, and rivals all tHoly Roman Empireatened profits.
English and Dutch merchants formed joint-stock companies to maximize profits and
limit risks.
Investors in a joint-stock company bought shares of ownership. If the company went
bankrupt, its owners lost their investment. If the companies prospered, the investor's
shares of ownership entitled them to collect a proportional share of the profits.
MERCANTILISM
i. The rulers of the new nation-states adopted a system of economic principles and policies called
mercantilism. Mercantilists wanted to build strong, se|f—sutficient economies.
ii. According to mercantilist theory, colonies should export raw materials and import finished goods.
This would create a favorable balance of trade and the resulting growth of national reserves of
gold and silver.
CONSEQUENCES
i. Decline of early commercial centers
1. During the 1400s, a confederacy of Baltic towns known as the Hanseatic League
dominated northern European trade. As the center of European trade shifted to the
rising nation-states in western Europe, the Hanseatic League rapidly declined.
2. Led by Venice, Italian city-states had controlled the lucrative trade with India. The
Portuguese broke this monopoly by pioneering a new sea route to Asia.
ii. Rise of capitalism
1. Capitalism is an economic system in which capital, or wealth, is invested to produce more capital.
2. Capitalism is based upon the private ownership of property such as land, raw materials,
and equipment.
3. Capitalists are motivated by a desire to earn profits.
4. The age of Discovery ushered in a new economic era dominated
by commercial capitalism.
iii. Rise of the bourgeoisie
1. As commercial capitalism expanded so did the class of entrepreneurs. The new middle
class is called the bourgeoisie.
2. As commercial capitalism expanded, so did the wealth and power of the bourgeoisie.
Dutch Republic
a. Political Independence
i. Each of the 7 Dutch provinces were politically independent
1. Not absolutist
2. Political power resided in the wealthy merchants
b. Religious toleration
i. Calvinism dominant
1. Catholics, Lutherans, even Anabaptists and Jews enjoyed religious freedom
ii. Religious tolerance created a cosmopolitan society that promoted commerce
c.
Economic prosperity
i. Dutch Republic = Europe’s leading commercial power during the 17th C
1. Amsterdam = financial center
ii. Shipbuilding played a key role
1. Dutch fleet = 10,000 + ships = largest in the world
iii. As trade shifted from the Medi to the Atl, Dutch bankers replaced Italian bankers as the key
financiers
iv. Dutch East Indies Co displaced Portuguese and gained control of $$$ spice commerce in E Indies
d. Artistic creativity
i. Protestant and no absolutist….so Dutch art is very different from (Catholic) Baroque
1. Baroque art intent to glorify God, the church and/or catholic monarchs
2. Dutch art funded by prosperous merchants
a. Self-made entrepreneurs
i. Rembrandt, Vermeer
e. Economic Decline
i. Costly wars with England and France
1.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
England and France ascendant 17th C
English society in the 17th C
a. Impact of Commercial Revolution
i. Size of English middle class increases
1. Except for Dutch, Engl middle class = largest % of population of any Euro country
ii. English entrepreneurs financed joint-stock companies and played a key role in promoting English
colonies
b. Gentry
i. Wealthy landowners who dominate the House of Commons
1. Unlike France, the English gentry willing to pay taxes - @ IMPORTANT CONSEQUENCES
a. Since tax burden was more equitable, English peasantry NOT overburdened
with taxes
b. The Gentry (and thus, the House of Commons) demanded a role in
determining national expenditures, and is one of the root causes of the Eng
Civil War
c. Religion
i. By the end of the 17th C, Calvinism significant religious sect
1. The Puritans demanded changes in the Anglican church
Key Issues
a. Role of monarch
i. Stuarts were divine-right Absolutists
1. And thus saw themselves as above Parliament
b. Role of House of Commons
i. Dominated by gentry, merchants, lawyers
ii. Determined to preserve traditional privileges
1. Open debate
2. Immunity from arrest
iii. Demanded a stronger (louder?) voice in political affairs
c.
Organization of the Church of England
i. Episcopos vs Presbyters
1. Episcopos – King and bishops basically run the church
2. Presbyter – each congregation ran itself (more or less)
James I (r. 1603 – 1625)
a. Divine Right Absolutist
i. Authority direct from God
ii. The True Law of Free Monarchies
1. Equates king’s power to God’s power
b. Quarrels w/Parliament
i. Puritans wanted to “purify” Church of England
1. Eradicate all elements of Roman Cath Chu
a. Esp the authority of Bishops
i. Who are appointed by the King and thus a great source of royal auth
over the church
b. James was certain Presbyterian system would undermine royal control over
the church
i. And thus tHoly Roman Empireaten the monarchy
1. “no bishops; no king”
Charles I (r 1625 – 1649) vs Parliament
a. Like James I
i. Divine Right Absolutist
ii. Needed revenues
iii. Opposed Puritans—supports Anglican Church
b. Petition of Right-1628
i. In exchange for $$$--grants allowed by Parliament—Charles agreed to the Petition of Right
1. 2 key provisions
a. No taxes without consent of Parliament
b. Habeus Corpus
i. No imprisonment without due process
Religious Policies
i. Religion was the most controversial issue in England
ii. Attempted to est Church of England as basically a Roman Catholic Religion—only without the
Pope
iii. Scots formed an army and occupied N’n Eng/Scotland as a defense of Presbyterian-style
(Calvinist/Puritan) church
d. Long Parliament – 1640 – 1648
i. Needed money to fight Scots—Charles has to call a Parliament
1. This precipitates the crisis
a. Parliament determined to oppose what they see as tyranny
i. And pass laws to limit royal power
English Civil War (1642 – 1649)
a. Cavaliers
i. Aristocrats, nobles, church officials who support Charles
1. Favored a strong monarchy and Anglican bishops appointed by crown
b. Roundheads
i. Puritans, townies, middle-class
1. Mostly Presbyterians-favor Presbyterian church structure
2. Favor a limited monarchy with a strong Parliament
c.
Cromwell
i. Gentry gentleman—leads New Model Army and is victorious
1. New Model Army = zealot Protestants
ii. Executes Charles I 1649
c.
VI.
VII.
The Interregnum Under Cromwell
a. Commonwealth and Protectorate
i. The Commonwealth (1649 – 1653) abolished monarchy and House of Lords
1. Cromwell and one-house legislature have political power
ii. Cromwell takes title Lord Protector
1. Dictatorship supported by New Model Army
b. Foreign Policy
i. Crushed uprising in Ireland
1. And protestant landlords replace Catholic property holders
ii. Undermined Dutch strength with a series of anti-Dutch wars
1. And the Navigation acts
a. Limited Dutch access to trade with any of England’s trading partners
c.
Domestic Policy
i. Puritans attempted to impose a strict moral code
1. Censored press, prohibited sports, closed theaters
ii. Opposed radical groups
1. Levellers wanted a democratic society and written constitution
2. Quakers rejected religious hierarchies
d. Death of Cromwell - 1658
i. Parliament invites Charles II to restore monarchy
VIII.
Restoration
a. Charles II (r 1660 – 1685)
i. Restored monarchy, Church of England and Parliament
1. BUT…the conflict over relationship between king and Parliament and religion remained
b. Question of Succession
i. Charles’s wife (and brother) were Roman Catholic
ii. Charles had NO LEGITIMATE HEIRS
1. Brother James is next in line for throne
c.
Tories and Whigs
i.
d.
IX.
Parliament divided into 2 groups
1. Whigs—deeply suspicious of Catholics and wanted to exclude James from the
succession
2. Tories strongly supported traditional monarchy
a. And thus, basically supported James right to the throne—even if they didn’t
like him per se
ii. Whigs and Tories = basically first political parties
James II (r 1685 – 1688)
i. Inherits throne and quickly adopts policies that antagonize Whigs AND Tories
1. Determined to return England to Catholicism, and so appointed Roman Catholics to
influential positions
ii. His 2nd wife was Roman Catholic—June 1688 she gives birth to a son
1. Who would be heir to the throne
The Glorious Revolution
a. William and Mary
i. Mary = daughter of James and his 1st wife
1. And a protestant
2. Married to William of Orange—Powerful Dutch leader
b. Whigs and Tories invited William and Mary to overthrow James II for Protestantism
i. James II flees to France
c.
Bill of Rights 1689
i. Parliament require William and Mary to accept a Bill of Rights
1. Key Provisions:
a. Free debate in Parliament
b. No taxation w/out Parl consent
c. Laws enacted only w/consent of Parl
d. King may NOT be Roman Catholic
e. Only Parliament can dissolve Parliament
f. Habeus corpus
d. Significance
i. English reject divine right absolutism
ii. Glorious Revolution places clear limits on powers of monarchs
iii. England becomes a constitutional monarchy controlled by an aristocratic oligarchy
Absolutism and Constitutionalism in Western Europe (ca. 1589-1715)
I.
Absolutism
A. Absolute Monarchs
1. In the 17th and 18th centuries absolute monarchs claimed absolute sovereignty based in divine right.
2. Nonetheless, at this time in history absolute monarchs generally were sill bound by the law: They did not
have unlimited royal power.
3. Absolute monarchs strove for the centralization of power to eliminate competing jurisdictions and
institutions in their territories.
a. They also secured the cooperation of the nobility.
4. In contrast to medieval monarchs who negotiated taxation with nobles on a case-by-case basis, absolute
monarchs set up bureaucracies that they controlled to collect taxes on a regular basis.
5. Bureaucrats in the 17th century began to distinguish between their public duties and private property.
6. Absolute monarchs maintained permanent standing armies.
7. Absolutist states were not totalitarian because they lacked the financial, military, and technological
resources to exercise total control over society.
8. Like 20th century totalitarian states, the absolutist regimes glorified the state above all and used war to
divert attention from domestic problems.
B. The Foundations of French Absolutism: Henry IV, Sully, and Richelieu
1. Henry IV lowered taxes on peasants and his chief minister, Sully, streamlined tax collection.
a. As the economy revived, tax receipts grew.
b. But Henry IV did introduce the paulette: an annual fee paid by royal officials to guarantee heredity
in their offices.
C.
D.
2. Cardinal Richelieu curbed the power of the nobility by reshuffling the royal council, leveling castles, and
executing aristocratic conspirators against the king.
a. The guiding force behind his domestic policies was the subordination of all groups and
institutions to the monarchy.
b. French foreign policy under Richelieu focused primarily on the prevention of the Habsburgs from
unifying the territories surrounding France.
3. Richelieu divided France up into thirty-two generalités supervised and monitored by one intendant each.
a. The intendants were beholden to the king only and generally came from the new, judicial
nobility: the nobility of the robe (not the older nobility of the sword)
4. The intendants recruited soldiers for the army, supervised tax collection, kept an eye on the local nobility,
presided over the administration of local laws, and regulated economic activity.
5. In 1627 Louis XIII moved to destroy Huguenot (French Protestant) independence because they refused to
allow Catholics freedom of worship in Huguenot cities.
a. The center of the struggle between the French crown and the Huguenots’ in 1627 was La
Rochelle.
6. During the later 17th century urban revolts bases on resentment of high taxation were common.
7. Richelieu supported foundation of the French Academy and standardization of the French language by the
Academy.
8. Richelieu and Louis XIV temporarily solved their financial problems by sharing the cut from increased
taxation with local elites.
9. Following the deaths of Louis XIII and Richelieu, Richelieu’s successor, Mazarin, provoked an aristocratic
rebellion that became known as the Fronde (1648-1653), which occurred early in the reign of Louis XIV.
a. High taxes were the most important issue.
b. The most important lesson Louis XIV learned from the Fronde was that the sole alternative to
anarchy was absolute monarchy, even at it also informed his decision to make local elites and
nobles tax exempt.
The Absolute Monarchy of Louis XIV
1. Louis XIV secured the collaboration of the nobility in projects that increased his prestige and theirs
2. Louis XIV’s royal court at Versailles was a tool of state policy, overawing subjects and visiting dignitaries.
a. Other European monarchs constructed their own versions of Versailles.
3. French language and culture became fashionable at courts all over Europe.
4. Louis used court ceremonies, entertainments, spies, and informers to reduce the power of the great
nobility.
5. Louis staffed his administration with members of the nobility of the robe or the upper middle class, to
show that he was not going to share power.
6. The phrase, attributed to Louis XIV that best characterizes his reign is “I am the state.” (“L’état, c’est moi”)
7. He would always refuse to call the Estates-General to raise money even when France had increasing
financial problems.
a. The meeting of the Estates-General, representatives of the French people, was the only lawful
way a monarch could raise taxes in France.
b. But a meeting of the Estates-General would unite the nobility against the monarch and force him
into giving concessions of his power in return for increased taxes.
8. In 1685 Louis XIV formally revoked the Edict of Nantes because he viewed it as an affront to his own claims
to power.
Financial and Economic Management under Louis IV: Colbert
1. In Louis XIV’s France, tax exemptions for elites placed the greatest tax burden on the peasantry.
2. Mercantilism
a. Louis’s chief financial minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, used subsidies for domestic industries,
tariffs, and policies to attract foreign artisans to make France self-sufficient and to boost French
exports to bring in gold.
b. Mercantilistic theory stated that government should intervene to secure the largest share of
limited resources.
3. Colbert expanded the French navy and merchant marine and promoted colonization of French territories
in North America.
a. He also improved the transportation system within France.
4. Among the weaknesses of the French financial system under Louis XIV included:
a. the sale of the job of tax collector to “tax farmers.”
b. high military expenditures
c.
d.
E.
II.
noble immunity from taxation
many middle-class tax exemptions
French Classicism
1. French “classicism” refers to imitation of Roman and Greek artistic models together with the
values of discipline, restraint, and balance in art.
2. After the 1660s French artists and musicians generally had to glorify the state and Louis XIV
himself: Who was referred to as the “Sun King.”
3. Nicholas Poussin exemplifies French classicism in painting (Rape of the Sabine Women), Jean-Baptiste Lully
in music, and Moliere and Racine in theater.
F. Louis XIV’s Wars
1. Louis was a conqueror – France was at war for thirty-tHoly Roman Empiree of the fifty-four years of his
reign.
2. Louis developed a large, efficient, disciplined army subordinate directly to himself. He also reformed the
French military in several ways:
a. Created an efficient supply system.
b. Standardized weapons and uniforms.
c. Formed a rational system of training and promotion.
d. Established an ambulance corps to look after the wounded.
3. Louis made territorial gains in the Low Countries and Lorraine before his armies ran out of steam in the
early 1680s.
4. High taxes to support the military and bad weather from 1688-1694 led to mass starvation in some areas of
France.
a. Pillaging troops and a slump in exports also contributed to the economic crisis.
5. The War of the Spanish Succession
a. After the death of King Charles II of Spain in 1700 passed the Spanish throne to Louis XIV’s
grandson, England, Holland, Austria, and Prussia formed the Grand Alliance against France to
preserve the balance of power and check French maritime expansion in the Americas, Asia, and
Africa.
b. The Grand Alliance feared the prospect of Louis XIV controlling both the French and Spanish
thrones.
6. The Peace of Utrecht
a. The war ended in 1713 with the Peace of Utrecht and stopped France, finished Spain as a great
power, and expanded England’s overseas empire.
b. England gained the most from the war including the acquisition of Gibraltar and the Spanish slave
trade, the asiento.
c. Reestablished a balance of power in Europe and ended the French dominance.
G. The Decline of Absolutist Spain in the Seventeenth Century
1. Spanish absolutism preceded that of the French.
a. In the 1500s the kingdom of Castile developed the characteristics of an absolute monarchy.
2. Gold and silver from the Americas were the basis for Spanish power.
3. The lack of a middle class (due in part to the expulsion of the Moors and Jews), agricultural crisis, population
decline, and failure to invest in productive enterprises meant that by 1715 Spain was a second-rate power.
4. Spain extended itself in wars it could not afford in the 1600s.
a. The final collapse of Spain as a great military power was symbolized by the defeat at the Battle of
Rocroi.
5. To solve their increasingly disastrous financial difficulties, Spanish monarchs often resorted to canceling the
national debt, which made it difficult for them to obtain loans in the future.
6. The expense and failure of the effort to repress the Dutch Revolt also drained the Spanish economy.
7. Population decline as well as intellectual and psychological malaise (as a result of the oppression of the
Spanish Inquisition) also contributed to Spain’s decline.
Constitutionalism
A. While France, and later Prussia, Russia, and Austria evolved absolutism, England and Holland developed
constitutionalism – the limitation of government by law.
1. Constitutionalism is not the same as democracy.
B. The Decline of Royal Absolutism in England
1. In spite of a disordered and bloody 17th century, England emerged a constitutional monarchy.
2. Elizabeth I’s successor James I asserted his divine right to absolute power, antagonizing
Parliament.
3. The House of Commons, the members of which were largely members of a new wealthy and
powerful capitalist class in England, objected.
4. James and his successor, Charles I (r. 1625-1649) appeared to be sympathetic to Catholicism; Puritans in the
house of Commons were suspicious.
5. English Civil War
a. In 1640 Charles had to summon Parliament to request funding to suppress a rebellion in Scotland
(against the imposition of Anglican liturgy).
b. As Parliament passed laws limiting Charles’s powers, an Irish uprising precipitated civil
war.
c. Charles tried to raise funds by collecting “ship money: - a coastal defense tax levied
illegally on inland counties.
d. This caused conflict with Parliament: the only government body that had the legal right
to raise taxes.
e. When Charles tried to arrest several members of Parliament who spoke out against him
he sparked a civil war between Parliament and the Monarch.
f. The aristocracy loyal to Charles became known as the Cavaliers.
g. The forces loyal to Parliament became known as the Roundheads.
h. The Cavaliers were eventually defeated and Charles fled to Scotland: But the Scots
handed him back over to Parliament.
i.
In spite of the trial and execution of Charles I in 1649 by Parliament, the civil war did not resolve
the problem of sovereignty.
Absolutism in Eastern Europe 1600-1725
III.
IV.
Holy Roman Empire Declining Empires
A. Eastern Europe in 1648
1. The Holy roman Empire, The Republic of Poland, and the Ottoman empire occupied everything
from France to Russia
a. All 3 were declining
i.
Each lacked a central authority and efficient bureaucracies
ii.
Each contained diverse language groups and ethnicities
B. Holy Roman Empire
1. The Reformation left the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE religiously divided
2. 30 Years’ War left HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE politically divided
a. @ 300 independent states
3. Emperor was elected
a. No imperial army, revenues, or central administration
4. Led by Hapsburgs and Hohenzollerns, Austria and Prussia emerged as the leading German states
C. Republic of Poland
1. Poland at 1650 – 1660 appears to be a large, united country
a. But the king was elected by the nobles
i.
Who severely restricted his power
b. Central diet
i.
Poland had an assembly (the diet)
i. But each delegate (aristocrat) had the liberum veto
1. It required unanimous consent to pass ANY legislation
c.
Poland’s lack of central power made it weak and vulnerable to stronger, more
aggressive nations
D. Ottoman Empire
1. 16th C, Ottomans Holy Roman Empireatened E’rn euro and Austria
a. Invaded and moved all the way to Vienna
i.
Austrian forces—abetted by Poles and Germans successfully
repelled Turks
i. And began a steady decline in Ottoman power
The Hapsburgs
A. Revival of Hapsburg power
V.
VI.
VII.
1. Hapsburg power declined after devastation of the 30 Years’ War and end of Spanish Hapsburg line
2. But…Hapsburgs reaffirmed their power over Austria, Bohemia, Hungary
a. Treaty of Utrecht (Spanish Succession) gave Austrian Hapsburgs Naples, Sardinia, Milan
AND Spanish Netherlands
3. Hapsburg power was the ONLY unifying factor in their holdings
a. Ethnically diverse empire
B. Charles VI and the Pragmatic Sanction
1. Charles VI had no male heir
2. Charles arranged the Pragmatic Sanction
a. Stating territories of Hapsburg Empire indissoluble—could NOT be broken up
b. And Maria Teresa would inherit
Rise of Prussia
A. Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg-Prussia (B-P)
1. Rulers of Brandenburg were one of the electors (of the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE)
2. Hohenzollerns hereditary dynasts of Brandenburg
3. 17th C, the Hohenzollerns inherited Prussia
a. Creating Brandenburg-Prussia
B. Frederick William, the Great Elector (1640 – 1688)
1. Struck deal with Junker class—who subordinated their power to him in exchange for complete
control over serf class within their own lands
C. Frederick William I (1713 - 1740)
1. Doubled size of Prussian military
a. Though small in size and resources, Prussia had one of Europe’s most powerful armies
2. Led by the Junker class, the officer corps became Prussia’s most prestigious class
a. “Prussia is not a state that possesses an army, but an army that possesses a state”
Russia before Peter the Great
A. Isolation
1. Russia was geographically isolated form the rest of Europe
a. Sweden prevented Russian access to the Baltic
b. Ottomans prevented Russian access to the Black
2. Russia was equally culturally isolated
a. Renaissance, Reformation, Age of Exploration, Scientific Revolution…all basically skipped
Russia
B. The Romanov’s
1. Time of Troubles – 1584 – 1613, political chaos during dynastic struggles
2. Romanov’s emerge as next (and last) line of czars 1613 – 1917
Peter the Great (1789 – 1825)
A. Modernizing Russia
1. Peter the Great recognized that Russia had fallen behind the west
a. Determined to learn from rivals—he visited W’rn Europe
2. Returned to Moscow and began expanding Russia’s army and building a new and modern navy
3. Improved Russian agriculture, imported skilled workers, relaxed social customs for women
a. And the beard-shaving thing
B. Defeating Sweden
1. 30 Years’ War Sweden dominated Baltic zone
2. Great Northern War (Russia v Sweden) 1700 – 1721
a. Russia victorious (treaty of Karlowitz 1721) gives Russia Baltic access
i.
And contributes to decline of Sweden
C. Building St Petersburg
1. 1703 – “window to the west”
D. Controlling the Boyars
1. Boyar class = Russian hereditary landed nobles
2. Peter required every noble to serve in the army or the civil administration
E. Exploiting serfs
1. Conscripted into huge army
2. Russian serfs were more like American chattel slavery—they were not bound to the land and
could be bought sold separate from the land
F.
a. Thus, they were forced into mining and factories
Judging Peter the Great
1. Successfully transformed Russia into a Great Power that would play an important role in European
affairs
2. But his policies widened the gap between nobles and peasants in Russia
a. Millions of serfs do NOT participate in any social cultural transitions in Europe
The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment
1.
Impact of the Scientific Revolution on Society
a. Led directly to the Enlightenment of the 18th century (see section below)
b. Improvements in exploration (e.g. John Harrison’s chronometer gave mariners the ability to easily
determine longitude by the late-18th century)
c. Spirit of experimentation perhaps helped accelerate the agricultural revolution—18th century
d. Improvements in medical knowledge helped improve the quality of life later (19th & 20th centuries)
e. Reduced support for witch hunts by discrediting superstition and witchcraft as fallacies.
f. Science and religion were not in acute conflict until the 19th and 20th centuries.

No attempt in 17th and 18th centuries to secularize science
o Scientists believed they were studying and analyzing God’s creation.
o Universal agreement among scientists and philosophers regarding the supernatural origin of the
universe.
o Debate centered on the extent to which God continued to be involved in his Creation.

After Catholic Counter Reformation, the Church became more hostile to science and science declined
in Italy (but not France).

Protestant countries became the leaders of the scientific revolution, especially England
I. The Scientific Revolution
B. Medieval view of the world
1. Primarily religious and theological
2. Political theory based on divine right of kings
3. Society largely governed by Church views, traditions, and practices
4. Superstition played major role in the lives of the people
5. Scientific thought in the early-16th century was still based on Medieval ideas
a. Views about the universe were largely influenced by the ancient ideas of Aristotle
b. The geocentric view held that the earth was the center of a static, motionless universe
c. Science was essentially a branch of theology
C.
Causes of the Scientific Revolution
1. Medieval universities provided the framework.
a. By 1300, philosophy had become an accepted discipline (in addition to law, medicine, and theology).
b. Medieval philosophers developed a degree of independence from theologians and a sense of free inquiry.
c. Leading universities established new professorships of mathematics, astronomy, and physics (natural philosophy) within
their departments of philosophy.
d. Major scientific figures either studied or taught at universities.
2. The Renaissance stimulated science by rediscovering ancient mathematics.

Renaissance patronage was often scientific as well as artistic and humanistic.
3. Navigational problems on sea voyages in the age of overseas expansion created a need for scientific advances
a. New instruments: telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, and air pump.
b. Gresham College, England: scientists worked closely with top officials in the Royal Navy and leading merchants and
shipbuilders.

Became main center of scientific activity during the first half of 17th century.
4. Scientific methodology.
a. Bacon formalized empirical, experimental research.
b. Descartes emphasized deductive reasoning.
D.
The Scientific Revolution became the major cause of the new world view of the 17th and 18th centuries
E.
1. Secularism emerged and many educated people became openly hostile to religion
2. The revolution in learning became a major foundation in Western society
The 16th Century
1. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
a. On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres (1543)

Copernicus postponed publication of his book fearing a backlash by the scientific community

He dedicated the book to Pope Paul III and did not intend for his theories to challenge Church doctrine
b. Heliocentric view: argued that the earth revolved around the Sun and that the sun was the center of the universe

Stated that the stars did not move although the apparent movement of the stars was the result of the earth’s rotation

The universe now seemed enormous, perhaps infinite

A major anomaly in his theory, retrograde motion of planets relative to the earth’s position, was remedied by the false
premise of epicycles

Directly challenged Ptolemy’s 2nd-century A.D. view of a geocentric universe

Seemed to challenge the Bible’s Book of Genesis that also put forth a geocentric view
c. Religious reaction to the Copernican theory

Martin Luther and John Calvin condemned Copernicus’ theory; pointed to Biblical passages supporting the Medieval
view

Catholic reaction initially less forceful as the Church didn’t always interpret the Bible literally

By 1616, the Catholic Church proclaimed the Copernican theory as false and persecuted those who advanced his views
(e.g. Galileo)
2.
3.
F.
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
a. Europe’s leading astronomer in the late-16th century
b. Built the best observatory in Europe and collected massive data on his observations of the universe

This data became a cornerstone of astronomy for centuries
c. His data later proved Copernicus’ theory

Ironically, Brahe did not accept the Copernican theory; he believed that while the planets all revolved around the sun,
the sun revolved around the earth.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
a. First great Protestant scientist; assistant to Brahe
b. Mathematically proved the Copernican theory
c. Developed three laws of planetary motion:

Orbits of planets are elliptical

Planets do not move at uniform speed while in their orbits

The time it takes for a planet to orbit the sun is directly based on its distance from the sun.
o The closer the planet to the sun (e.g. Mercury and Venus) the faster its orbit
The 17th Century
1. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
a. Developed the laws of motion

Used the experimental method (with controlled experiments)

Acceleration experiment: gravity was a universal force that produced uniform acceleration
o All falling objects descend with equal velocity regardless of their weight

Law of inertia: an object that is in motion remains in motion until it is stopped by some external force
b. Validated Copernicus’ heliocentric view with the aid of a telescope

Galileo was the first to use the telescope as a scientific instrument; he built one himself

Demonstrated that the moon and other planets were not perfectly round like a crystal sphere (the prevailing Medieval
view)

Discovered the 4 moons of Jupiter thus refuting the notion that Jupiter was embedded in an impenetrable crystal
sphere
c. Galileo’s findings became controversial in Catholic countries

His views were largely supported in Protestant northern Europe where reformers had questioned Catholic doctrines

The Catholic Church in 1616 declared Copernican theory to be heretical

1632, Galileo published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems in which he wrote about the Copernican
system as a mathematical proposition

1633, The inquisition of Pope Urban VII forced Galileo to retract his support of the Copernican theory
o He remained under house arrest for the rest of his life
2.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
a. Formalized the empirical method (or empiricism) that had already been used by Brahe and Galileo
b. Inductive method for scientific experimentation:

Begin with inductive observation, then form a hypothesis, conduct experiments and then organize the data.

“Renounce notions and begin to form an acquaintance with things”
c. Bacon’s inductive method, coupled with Descartes deductive reason formed the backbone of the modern scientific method.
3.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)- Most important French Philosopher
a. Discourse on Method advocated the use of deductive reasoning.
using given true premises to reach a conclusion that is also true.
b. Cartesian Dualism divided all existence into the spiritual and the material.

The spiritual can only be examined through deductive reasoning (logic)

The material is subject to the experimental method.
Modern Scientific Method: inductive method (of Bacon) + the deductive method (of Descartes)
4.
5.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
a. Incorporated the astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo into an overarching theory explaining order
and design to the universe.
b. Principle of universal gravitation:

Detailed in Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, (1687) (known more popularly as Principia).
o Perhaps the greatest book on science ever written

Natural laws of motion – gravitation – are evident in the movement of heavenly bodies and earthly objects
o Newton developed a set of mathematical principles to explain motion.

Every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship

Since these natural laws are unchangeable and predictable, God’s active participation in the natural world is not needed
to explain the forces of nature
o This directly challenged Medieval beliefs
o This view came to be the foundation of the Enlightenment view of God: deism
c. Invented calculus (although Leibniz also claimed to have done so)
II. The Enlightenment
A. Emergence of a secular world view for the first time in human history
1. Fundamental notion was that natural science and reason could explain all aspects of life
2. Belief in autonomy of man’s intellect apart from God.
3. Most basic assumption: faith in reason rather than faith in revelation
4. Deism: religious arm of the Enlightenment
a. Existence of God was a rational explanation of the universe and its form.
b. God was a deistic Creator—a cosmic clockmaker—
who created the universe and then stepped back
and left it running like a clock
c. The universe was governed by “natural law”, not by a personal God

Some called it the “ghost in the machine.”
d. The supernatural was not involved in human life.
e. Deism grew out of Newton’s theories regarding natural law.
5. Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677): Philosopher who created a world view in which he equated God and nature.
B.
Belief that the scientific method could explain the laws of society
1. Progress in society was possible if natural laws and how they applied to society could be understood
2. Education was seen a key to helping society to progress
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) – greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment

Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge.

Science could describe nature, it could not provide a guide for morality.

“Categorical imperative” was an intuitive instinct, placed by God in the human conscience.
o
o
C.
Yet, both ethical sense and aesthetic appreciation in human beings were beyond knowledge of science.
Reason is a function of the mind and has no content in and of itself.
John Locke (1632-1704)
1. Two Treatises of Civil Government, 1690
a. Philosophical defense for the “Glorious Revolution” in England.
b. State of nature: humans are basically good but lack protection

This contrasts with Hobbes’ view of humans in a state of nature: nasty and brutish
c. Governments provide rule of law but only through the consent of the governed
d. The purpose of government is to protect “natural rights” of the people: life, liberty and property
e. Right to rebellion: People have a right to abolish a government that doesn’t protect natural rights.
2.
Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690
a. One of the great works of the Enlightenment, along with Newton’s Principia
b. Stressed the importance of the environment on human development: Education was the key
c. tabula rasa: the human mind was born as a blank slate and registered input from the senses passively.
d. Saw all human knowledge as the result of sensory experiences without any preconceived notions
e. Rejected Descartes’ view that all people are born with certain basic ideas and ways of thinking.
f. For progress to occur in society, education was critical in determining human development.
g. Undermined the Christian view that humankind was essentially sinful
1.
Voltaire (1694-1778)
a. Perhaps the most influential of all Enlightenment philosophers

He wrote his criticisms with a sharp sarcasm that ridiculed those with whom he disagreed.- Voltaire was a brilliant
satirical writer (think late night talk show host)
b. Challenged traditional Catholic theology

Strong deist views

Believed prayer and miracles did not fit with natural law

Believed that human reason was the key to progress in society, not religious faith
c. His social criticism inspired a call for change, setting the stage for the French Revolution

He hated bigotry and injustice and called for religious toleration.

His most famous quote against religious intolerance was “crush the infamous thing” (“Ecracsez l’infame”)

Although Voltaire was raised as a Christian, he came to distrust organized religion as corrupt in its leadership and for
having moved away from the central message of Jesus
d. Advocated “enlightened despotism” (a more benevolent form of absolutism) believing that people were incapable of
governing themselves

These views were similar to Hobbes

His views influenced several “Enlightened Despots” including Frederick the Great of Prussia (who invited Voltaire to live
in his court in Berlin), Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Napoleon of France.

Believed in equality before the law but not in the equality of classes.
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
a. Member of the French nobility; hated the absolutism of Louis XIV.
b. Spirit of the Laws (1748): called for separation of powers in government into three branches (monarchy, nobility and the rest
of the population)

Goal: prevent tyranny and promote liberty

Principle of checks and balances would ensure that no single branch of gov’t became too powerful as the other two
branches could check excess power.

He favored the British system of a monarch, Parliament and independent courts

He supported the 13 parlements in France (judicial tribunals of nobles) as a check against tyrannical absolute rule by the
monarch
c. Montesquieu’s ideas had a significant impact on the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the French Revolution in the 1780s.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
a. Social Contract (1762)

Believed that too much of an emphasis on property, and not enough consideration of people, was a root cause of social
injustice.

The general will, a consensus of the majority, should control a nation. This strongly implied democracy.
3.
4.
o Downside: Minority viewpoints were not recognized.
Though these ideas seem to support democracy, the ambiguous nature of “general will” was later manipulated by
dictators to rationalize extreme nationalism and tyranny (e.g. Robespierre)
b. Though considered part of the Enlightenment, Rousseau is more accurately seen as a founder of the Romantic Movement.

After the French Revolution, the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason gave way to a glorification of emotion.
c. Rousseau believed that man in a simpler state of nature was good—a “noble savage”—and was corrupted by the
materialism of civilization.
d. Emile (1762)

Believed in progressive education; learning by doing; self-expression encouraged.

Ironically, he left his 5 illegitimate children in an orphanage instead of educating them.
Denis Diderot (1713-1784): The Encyclopedia (completed in 1765)

5.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
D.
E.
F.
Perhaps the greatest and most representative work of the philosophes
Compendium of political and social critiques from various Enlightenment philosophers and authors
Helped to popularize the views of the philosophes
Emphasized science and reason while criticizing religion, intolerance, injustice and tyranny
Sought to teach people to think critically and objectively
The Encyclopedia was banned in France; the pope placed it on the Index of Prohibited Books
Economic Theory in the Enlightenment
1. Adam Smith (1727-90): Wealth of Nations (1776)
a. Considered the “Bible” of capitalism.
b. Refined and expanded laissez-faire philosophy of the physiocrats.
c. Believed the economy is governed by the natural laws of supply and demand.
d. In a free market economy, competition will encourage producers to manufacture most efficiently in order to sell higher
quality, lower cost goods than competitors.
e. Gov’t regulation only interferes with this natural self-governing style.
Women in the Enlightenment
1. Women played a major role in the salon movement
a. Many of the brightest minds of the Enlightenment assembled in salons to discuss the major issues of the day
b. Certain women organized salons and took part in the discussions

Madame de Geoffren

Madame de Staël

Louise de Warens
c. Geoffren played a major role in patronizing
Diderot’s Encyclopedia
d. Madame de Staël later brought German romantic ideas into France in the early 1800s
2. The philosophes favored increased rights and education for women
3. In England, Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) promoted political & educational equality for women
Later Enlightenment (late 18th century)
a. Became more skeptical (and in the case of Hume and d’Holbach, even atheistic)
b. Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-89) System of Nature


Argued humans were essentially like machines, completely determined by outside forces (determinism).
His staunch atheism, determinism and attacks on Christianity undermined the Enlightenment
c. David Hume (1711-1776)



Argued against faith in both natural law and faith
As a skeptic, Hume claimed that human ideas were merely the result of sensory experiences; thus, human reason could not
go beyond what was experienced through the senses.
Undermined Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason.
d. Jean de Condorcet (1743-1794) Progress of the Human Mind


His utopian ideas also undermined the legitimacy of Enlightenment ideas.
Identified 9 stages of human progress that had already occurred and predicted the 10th stage would bring perfection.
e. Rousseau: attacked rationalism and civilization as destroying rather than liberating the individual.
f.

Influenced early Romantic movement

Believed in a more loving and personal god
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) – greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment

Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge.

Science could describe nature, it could not provide a guide for morality.

“Categorical imperative” was an intuitive instinct, placed by God in the human conscience.
o Yet, both ethical sense and aesthetic appreciation in human beings were beyond knowledge of science.
o Reason is a function of the mind and has no content in and of itself.
III. Enlightened Despotism (c. 1740-1790)
A. The philosophes inspired and supported the reforms of the Enlightened Despots
1. Believed absolute rulers should promote the good of the people
2. Yet believed, like Hobbes earlier, that people were not capable of ruling themselves
B. Reforms of the Enlightenment were modest
1. Religious toleration
2. Streamlined legal codes
3. Increased access to education
4. Reduction or elimination of torture and the death penalty
C.
Frederick the Great (Frederick II) (r. 1740-1786)
1. Background
a. One of the greatest rulers in German history
b. Son of Fredrick William I who gave him a strong military education
c. Profoundly influenced by the Enlightenment

He considered French learning to be superior

Patronized Voltaire and invited him to live in his court in Berlin

Musician and poet
2. Wars of Frederick the Great
a. The first 23 years of Frederick’s reign was dominated by warfare
4. Social structure in Prussia remained heavily stratified
a. Serfdom on noble lands maintained
b. The “Junkers” (Prussian nobility) were the backbone of Prussia’s military and the state

The state did not recognize marriages between nobles and commoners.

Nobles not allowed to sell their lands to non-nobles.
c. Middle-class found it extremely difficult to move up socially

Civilian bureaucrats were not permitted to enter the nobility

However, in the judicial system, 2/3 of judges were non-nobles.
D.
Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)
3. Background
a. One of greatest rulers in European history

As a reformer, perhaps the least “enlightened” of the Enlightened Despots
b. German princess who became Queen after her husband, Peter III, was assassinated during the Seven Years’ War

She took part in the assassination plot

Peter the Great had abolished the succession of hereditary czars
c. She was a lover of French culture (she refused to speak German or Russian) and considered herself a child of the
Enlightenment

Diderot lived in her court for a time
4. Pugachev Rebellion (1773)
a. Eugene Pugachev, a Cossack soldier, led a huge serf uprising.

Demanded end to serfdom, taxes and army service.

Landlords and officials were murdered all over southwestern Russia.

Pugachev eventually captured and executed.
b. Catherine needed support of nobility and gave them absolute control of serfs.

Serfdom spread to new areas (e.g. Ukraine)

1785, Catherine freed nobles forever from taxes and state service.

Confiscated lands of Russian Orthodox Church and gave them to favorite officials.

Nobles reached their height of position while serfs were worse off than ever before.
5. Imported western culture into Russia
a. Architects, artists, musicians and writers were invited to Russia
b. Culturally, Russia gained the respect of western European countries
Educational reforms
a. Supported the first private printing presses.

The number of books published annually in Russia increased to about 400 during her reign compared to a few dozen
prior to her reign.
b. A school for noble girls was founded
7. Restricted the practice of torture
8. Allowed limited religious toleration
a. Catherine stopped the government policy of persecuting Old Believers (an ultra-conservative and dissident sect of the
Orthodox Church)
b. Jews were granted civil equality

Jews had suffered much persecution in Russia:
o Jews could not be nobles, join guilds or hold political offices
o Not allowed to participate in agricultural work or certain trades
o Resented by Russian and Ukrainian peasants for usury
9. Strengthened local government led by elective councils of nobles.

Yet, the crown was not obligated to accept recommendations from councils
10. Shortcomings of Catherine’s reforms
a. Only the state and the nobility benefited; the rest of the Russian population benefited little, if at all

Nobles gained more legal and financial security from the state

Nobles freed from taxes or state service
b. Serfdom became even more severe

Nobles had complete control over their serfs and could mete out arbitrary punishments (even death)

Only nobles could own land
11. Territorial growth under Catherine the Great
a. Annexed Polish territory under the 3 partitions with Prussia and Austria in 1772, 1793 & 1795

Poland’s government of nobles was ineffective as the liberum veto required unanimous agreement for the government
to act.
b. Gained Ottoman land in the Crimea that was controlled by the Tartars.
c. Began conquest of the Caucasus region.
d. Expansion provided Catherine with new lands with which to give the nobility (to earn their loyalty)
6.
E.
Austria
1. Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780) (not an Enlightened despot)
a. Assumed the Habsburg empire from her father, Charles VII.

Pragmatic Sanction of 1713: Issued by Leopold and agreed to by the Great Powers that the Habsburg Empire would
remain intact under his daughter’s rule

Officially, she was Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia.

She sought to improve the condition of her people through absolute rule.

Conservative and cautious (unlike her son, Joseph II who was a bold reformer but brought the empire to near rebellion)
b. The War of Austrian Succession (see above)

As a female, Maria Theresa could not assume the title of Holy Roman Emperor
o This issue cast doubts among the Great Powers regarding her legitimacy as ruler of the Habsburg empire

c.
Although Maria Theresa lost Silesia to Prussia, she saved her leadership of the empire.
o The Hungarian nobility helped the queen to defeat the Bohemian revolt and preserve the empire.
Centralized control of the Habsburg Empire

Limited the power of the nobles
o Reduced power of the lords over their serfs
o Some serfs were partially freed
o Feudal dues by peasants were reduced or eliminated
o Nobles were taxed

Maria Theresa did more to help the condition of serfs than any ruler in European history up to that time (only her son,
Joseph II, did more)
o This was in response to the terrible famine and disease of the 1770s.
d.
e.
f.
2.

Increased the empire’s standing army from 30,000 to over 100,000

Improved the tax system

Reduced conflicts between various provinces in the empire

Reduced the practice of torture in legal proceedings
Brought the Catholic Church in Austria under state control

Sought to reduce pope’s influence in Austria
o Suppressed the Jesuits

Taxed the Catholic Church in Austria

She believed that the Church and the nobility were the foundations of the state
Promoted economic development

Hoped that giving serfs some freedoms would make them more productive

Abolished guilds

Abolished internal customs duties and

Encouraged immigration

Improved transportation: roads, ports

Supported private enterprise
Maria Theresa is NOT considered, however, an Enlightened Despot

She was not a fan of the Enlightenment

Did not go as far as others in allowing religious toleration (which her son did, along with Frederick the Great and
Catherine the Great)
o She did provide some toleration for Protestants
Joseph II (r. 1780-1790)
a. Ruled with his mother, Maria Theresa, as co-regent until her death in 1780
b. Perhaps the greatest of the “Enlightened Despots” in terms of reforms but in many ways was among the least effective

Deeply influenced by the Enlightenment and its emphasis on reforms

Firm believer in absolutism and he could be ruthless in achieving his goals
c. Major reforms

Abolished serfdom and feudal dues in 1781
o Ironically, opposed by many peasants since the law stated that obligations to lords would have to be paid in cash,
rather than labor (serfs had little cash available)
o Nobles resisted their reduced power over the peasantry
o This edict was rescinded after his death by his brother Leopold II who needed support of the nobles.

Freedom of religion and civic rights to Protestants and Jews

Reduced the influence of the Catholic Church
o Suppressed monasteries

Allowed freedom of the press to a significant degree

Reformed the judicial system and sought to make it equal for all citizens

Abolished torture and ended the death penalty

Expanded state schools

Established hospitals, insane asylums, poorhouses and orphanages
o State provided food and medicine to the poor

Made parks and gardens available to the public

Made German the official language of the empire in an effort to assimilate minorities
d. Empire declined under Joseph’s reign
a) Austria defeated several times in wars with the Ottoman Empire
b) Austrian Netherlands in revolt
c) Russia was threatening Austria’s interests in eastern Europe and the Balkans
d) Leopold II was forced to reverse many of Joseph’s radical reforms in order to maintain effective control of the empire.
Revolutions
1.
American Revolution
a. Events leading up to the revolution
a) The Proclamation of 1763--Colonists could not move west of the Appalachian mountains.
b) The Sugar Act of 1764--first British attempt to raise revenue.
c) Enforcement of Navigation Acts--hurt American trade.
d)
b.
A.
The Stamp Act of 1765--effected colonial leaders: lawyers, businessmen, and tavern keepers. Repealed in 1766 after the
colonists met in the Stamp Act Congress, but Parliament passed the Declaratory Act which reaffirmed its supremacy.
e) The Townshend Acts of 1767--repealed in 1770 except for tea tax.
f) The Boston Massacre of 1770--colonial propaganda victory.
g) The granting of the British East India Company a monopoly on tea in 1773 led to the December Boston Tea Party.
h) The Intolerable (Coercive) Acts of 1774--passed in response to the Boston Tea Party. Provisions: a) closed the port of
Boston; b) suspended self-government in Massachusetts; c) moved colonial trials to other locations; and, d) soldiers
quartered in private homes.
The declaration of independence
a) Ratified in 1781.
b) No executive or judicial system.
c) In Congress each state had one vote. Nine states required to pass a law; unanimous agreement to amend articles.
d) States, not the national government, were sovereign (have ultimate decision-making power).
e) Framers of the Articles wanted a weak government; liberty was a more important value than efficiency.
French Revolution
1. Prelude to French Revolution
a. short-term problems
1. Fiscal crisis
2. Hostile aristocracy
3. Criticism of Marie Antoinette
4. Dissatisfied bourgeoisie
5. Unrest among peasants & urban workers (2 years of bad harvests = famine)
2. Crisis: 1788-1789
a. Louis XVI needed more money
b. Church and Nobility: NO NEW TAXES
c. Parlements refused to register King’s edicts
d. Has to call Estates General
3. Phase I: the Liberal Revolution
a. Getting ready:
1. Representatives for E-G elected by each estate
2. cahiers de doléances
3. Pamphleteers
4. How to vote: by order or by head?
b. The Meeting of the Estates-General
1. Arrive at Versailles May 5, 1789
2. June 17 = delegates from the Third Estate declare National Assembly
3. Tennis Court Oath June 21, 1789
c. The National Assembly, 1789-1791
1. = primary power of France
a. Landlord rights
b. Civil Rights “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen”
c. The Catholic Church
d. Role of the King
d. Revolution of the People
1. a second, more radical revolution in Paris.
a. based on actions and movements
b. people = Peasants, “sans-culottes”
2. Storming of the Bastille (royal fortress) July 14, 1789
3. Women’s march to Versailles (October 5, 1789)
a. Marks beginning of influence of Parisian crowd
4. Living with the Revolution:
a. Rumors & News
b. Revolutionary dress
c. For the first time urban poor have an important role in history
4. Phase II: The Radical Revolution 1791-1799
a. September 1791, National Assembly goes home
b. 2 subsequent assemblies:
B.
1. Legislative Assembly 1791-1792
2. National Convention 1792-1794
c. Meanwhile, King is plotting
1. April 1, 1792, declares war on Austria
2. counterrevolution
a. radicalizing effect on revolution
3. attack on Tueleries Palace
a. Legislative Assembly gives upnew elections
b. National Convention elected by universal manhood suffrage
d. The National Convention
1. abolish the monarchy September 22, 1792 = “First Republic”
2. National Convention has to…
a. write new constitution
b. fight war
c. enemies at home
d. deal w/King (Louis Capet)
3. Girondins vs. Jacobins
4. Louis XVI executed January 21, 1793
5. The Reign of Terror
a. Problems continue…
1. Internal struggles
2. Waning popular support for Revolution
3. Levée en masse
b. Committee on Public SafetyMaximilian Robespierre
1. Death penalty
2. Revolutionary tribunals
3. Total war
c. Domestic efforts under the Terror
1. “Cult of Reason”
2. Revolutionary dress mandatory
3. metric system
4. Revolutionary calendar
5. Marriage = civil contract (legalized divorce)
6. Educational reforms
d. Spring 1794: “the Revolution was devouring its own children”
1. Acquittal or death
2. Ordinary people guillotined daily
6. Fall of Robespierre & Thermidorean Reaction
a. July 27, 1794: end of Robespierre
b. Jacobin club abolished
7. New government: the Directory (r.1794-1799)
a. Aggressive foreign policy to “spread” revolution
Napoleon Bonaparte
1. The Rise of Napoleon
a. Napoleon Bonaparte
b. November 9, 1799 Napoleon & Abbé Sieyès stage coup d’état
1. Consulate: Napoleon = “1st Consul”
c. Napoleon ends French Revolution & sets course for new, authoritarian state
1. 1804: Emperor of the French
d. Legacies of Napoleon’s Rule
1. Spread Revolution through warfare
2. Moderated revolutionary ideas
3. The Civil Code
4. Disastrous for women & small land owners
5. Grand Armée
2. Fall of Napoleon
a. Invades Russia 1814
1. Forced to abdicate
2. Exiled to Elba
The Hundred Days
1. Waterloo
3. Bourbon Monarchy restored
a. (Louis XVIII)
b. Napoleon to St. Helena
Revolution in Haiti: 1791–1804
1. Brutal plantation system
2. Revolt broke out 1791
a. Rise of Toussaint L’Ouverture (c. 1743–1803) as leader
3. Napoleonic effort at reconquest
a. Formal declaration of independence 1804
b. Only successful slave revolution in history
4. Catalyst for abolition movement
a. Reaction to fear of revolts
b. U.S. Civil War
b.
C.
D.
Latin American Independence Movements
1. Series of elite revolts, 1810–1826
2. Simón Bolívar = greatest of leaders
a. Liberation of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia
b. Dream of unified South America
1. Fell apart in warfare between generals
c. Militarization of states
3. Mexico—conservative Creole elite took over revolutionary movement
4. Brazil—king fled to Brazil in Napoleonic Wars
a. Brazil granted equal legal status to Portugal
b. Declared independence unopposed, 1822
5. Paraguay—populist revolution
a. Didn’t privilege elite
b. Policy of self-reliance
c. 1865–1870 neighbors attacked and destroyed system