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Chapters 2-5
Pgs. 76-95
Mediterranean classical
civilizations were composed of
two main cultures:1)Greek and
2)Roman.
 Together these civilizations form
what is known as Greco-Roman
culture.
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The rise of Greek
civilization around 800
BCE was based off of the
strong city-states created.
Each city-state had its
own government,
typically a tyranny of
one ruler or an
aristocratic council. (#1)
Why did city-states
develop instead of a
unified nation?
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The peninsula of
Greece was so
divided by
mountains that a
unified government
would have been
very difficult to
establish. (#1)
There were also a
significant amount of
water barriers
making unity
difficult.

Although the city-states were divided
geographically, they did tend to share common
cultural elements such as:

Language – A rich written language derived from
Phoenician alphabet spread throughout peninsula
Trade – Trade between city-states was common.
Usually conducted via water routes.
Religious festivals – Olympic competitions.
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They DID NOT share similar governing styles.
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ATHENS
SPARTA
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In the 4th century B.C., the powerful king of Macedonia
(a region just north of Greece) named Philip II
conquered both city-states of Athens and Sparta.
His son, Alexander the Great, succeeded him and
spread the empire to Egypt, through the Middle East
and into parts of India.
He died at age 33, but not before mixing Greek culture
with Egyptian, Indian and Persian cultures. This came
to be known as Hellenistic culture. “Hellenistic” means
Greek-like.
Trade and knowledge flourished under the
Hellenistic era. The exchange of goods and ideas
between Greek, Indian, Egyptian, and Persian
cultures allowed for huge amounts of cultural
diffusion. (#2)

The most famous
Hellenistic center
was the city
established by
and named after
Alexander in
Egypt,
Alexandria.
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The Roman state began as a local monarchy in
central Italy around 800 B.C.E.
Roman aristocrats succeeded in driving out
the monarchy (Tarquin the Proud) in 509
B.C.E., and vowed to never be ruled by a king
again.
They established a republic, a form of
government where the power lies in the
hands of voters (only the wealthy elite) who
elect officials and representatives to rule on
their behalf.
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As the power of the city-state continued to
grow, they eventually conquered the Italian
peninsula along with some Greek colonies.
Eventually they came into conflict with another
powerful Mediterranean city-state, Carthage.
The Phoenician city-state of Carthage was
located in northern Africa.
Rome and Carthage fought a series of three
wars from 264 to 146 BCE called the Punic
Wars. (Rome won and took control of the
western Mediterranean) (#4)
PUNIC WARS MAP
HANNIBAL
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The politics of the Roman republic grew
unstable as victorious generals sought even
greater power while the poor of the city
rebelled.
In 45 BCE, one of these generals, Julius
Caesar, won control of the Roman state,
effectively bringing an end to the republic.
After his assassination, another set of generals
fought for control. Eventually his grandnephew, Octavian (Augustus), won.
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Augustus (Rome’s 1st
emperor) established the
basic structures of an
empire.
For the next 207 years the
Roman Empire
maintained peace and
prosperity throughout the
Med. World. (From
Augustus to Marcus
Aurelius)
This time period is known
as the Pax Romana
(Roman peace)
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During the time
of the Pax
Romana, the
empire grew
tremendously,
virtually covering
the entire
Mediterranean
World.
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Over the next 250
years, the empire
experienced a slow
and steady decline as
a result of several
contributing factors.
One of the main
factors was invasions
from outside tribes.
(Germanic tribes and
Huns) (#5)
p.82
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Though the empire was
in decline, it still
experienced a few
strong leaders. (Ex.
Diocletian and
Constantine)
They tried to reverse the
tide of its ultimate fall.
Constantine adopted
the then somewhat
obscure religion of
Christianity in 313 CE.
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Politics were an extremely important part of
both Greek and Roman civilizations.
In fact, the word politics comes from the
Greek word for city-state, polis. This
reinforces that there were intense political
interests in Greece and Rome.
Both tended to emphasize aristocratic rule
but there were significant examples of
democratic elements as well.
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There was no single Greek political style, but
democracy is the most famous.
Democracy actually derives from the Greek
word demos, which means “the people”.
In Athens, major decisions of the state were
made by general assemblies where ALL
citizens could participate. (#6)
This is known as a direct democracy, cause
people rule or make decisions directly and not
through representatives.
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This term can be somewhat misleading when
referring to Greek politics however.
Although all citizens could participate in
politics, only a minority of people in Athens
were actually citizens. (#6)
Citizenship rights were not extended to all
(usually just landowners). For example,
women had no political rights, and foreigners
or slaves, who were not citizens, made up half
the adult population. (#6)
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Rome’s republic allowed citizens to
actively elect representatives (senators)
who would ideally operate in his
electors’ interests.
Citizens could not directly vote on laws
in Rome.
Athens’ democracy allowed its citizens
to vote directly on laws, hence the name
direct democracy.
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Romans emphasized
carefully crafted laws
to hold their vast
territories together.
The first law code of
the Roman republic
was introduced in 450
B.C.E., known as the
Twelve Tables.
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The laws restrained
upper classes from
arbitrary action.
Romans believed that
laws should be able to
evolve over time to meet
changing conditions.
Laws, instead of personal
whim should govern
people.
The Twelve Tables also
promoted a common
sense fairness. (Ex. p.86)
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Mediterranean governments are more well
known for the types of government systems
they established such as democracy and
republic than for their specific functions.
Nevertheless, here are some of those functions:
1) Maintaining law courts and military forces
(#8)
2) Regulating commerce (especially of
important crops like grain) (#8)
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3) Construction of vast public works projects
to facilitate trade and commerce, to provide
entertainment and distraction for its subjects,
to bring in fresh water (aqueducts), and for
religious purposes.
4) Provided cheap food, gladiator contests and
entertainment for the masses (bread and
circuses)
5) Governments also supported official state
religions and loyalty to the state through
religious festivals.
ROMAN SENATE
(MAINTAINING LAW)
ROMAN LEGIONARY
(MILITARY FORCES)
REGULATING
COMMERCE
Political Functions of
Government (Public
Works) #8-9
*The Roman road system
helped facilitate the spread of
commodities throughout the
massive empire. It connected
towns in a way that none of
the other classical civilizations
experienced.
*It also allowed for the
transport of troops in a quick
and efficient manner, making
control of the populace much
easier for the government.
*Finally, the roads helped
spread new ideas like
Christianity all throughout the
Mediterranean world (#10).
ROMAN ROAD DESIGN
PUBLIC BATHS
AQUEDUCTS
ROMAN
ENTERTAINMENT
GREEK ENTERTAINMENT
STATUE OF ZEUS
PARTHENON
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First of all, neither Greece nor Rome generated
a major world religion.
Greco-Roman religion was derived from a
belief in the spirits of nature (animism)
elevated into a complex system of gods and
goddesses.
Though there were different names for the
deities between Greece and Rome, they were
essentially the same.
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The gods were sought out by the people for
foretelling and advice on a whole host of issues
from health to harvest.
Greco-Roman gods were seen as in a much
more human nature than an out-of-this-world
approach. They were ascribed certain actions,
blunders, and behaviors that were passed
down in human stories about the gods known
as myths. As your book says, these were like
soap operas on a super-human scale.
Greek Philosophy
(#11)
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The Greek philosophical legacy
had its roots in Athens,
emphasizing the power of
human thought.
Socrates encouraged his
students to question the
conventional wisdom of the
times to promote individual
wisdom and the ability to think.
This was more important than
individual spirituality for Greek
philosophers.
Rational and skeptical
questioning of the established
orders became the hallmark of
Greek philosophy.
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
were all leading Athenian
philosophers.
The Death of Socrates by JacquesLouis David
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The main problem faced agriculturally by Greece
and Rome was in the fact that their soil conditions
were not well suited for large scale agricultural
crops like grain. The land was more suited for
crops such as grapes and olives, but these could
not feed the growing populations and took
considerable time to develop.
As a result, both societies looked to new areas for
access to grain production (Middle East, North
Africa, Sicily). This was one of the chief reasons for
empire expansion.
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Obviously, agricultural products (grain, olives,
grapes) were the main commodity traded.
Luxury products were also widely traded
among the Mediterranean, India, and China.
Mediterranean manufactured products were
far less sophisticated than those of east Asia, so
instead they traded luxury products like
animal skins, precious metals, and exotic
animals for Asian zoos in return for spices and
artisan products from the east.
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Merchants within Greco-Roman culture had a
somewhat ambiguous status.
They generally made up the second highest
social class behind landlords and patricians,
but they were typically foreigners who did not
have citizenship rights and were therefore not
entirely part of the culture.
Overall, they were in between the value of
merchants in China and India.
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Slavery was essential to Greco-Roman culture.
Neither civilizations could have functioned
without it.
Athenians used slaves domestically in the
household as well as for extensive mining of salt
and silver. They were in both societies the main
labor force.
In Rome, their primary role was in agricultural
production. They were also used within the house
for domestic service, which included tutoring of
high-class children (usually done by Greek slaves).
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Other duties included construction,
entertainment, and the sex industry.
Most historians believe slaves made
up close to half of the empire’s
population. The constant need for
slaves, which came from conquered
territories, promoted military
conquest.
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Abundant slave labor discouraged
innovative and more efficient
technological or agricultural
techniques.
Greeks and Romans tended to
depend more on their slaves to do
the work for them rather than come
up with more practical inventions or
methods.
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1) Once it fell, it fell for good. There was no revival of
Roman culture or power like there was in China. One
reason is because the Romans did not have a political
explanation for decay and revival, like the Chinese
(Mandate of Heaven).
2) Unlike India, there was no central religion to hold it
together or serve as a link between the classical period
and what followed.
3) Finally, Roman political and cultural aspects fell in
some parts of the Mediterranean more than it did in
others. It was not a uniform fall. For example, while
the western Mediterranean exprerienced sharp decline,
the eastern portions continued to flourish for centuries
after the sack of Rome (476 C.E.)