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Chapter 8
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Chapter 8 Outline
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•
•
•
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Pectoral Girdle
Upper Limb
Pelvic Girdle
Lower Limb
Aging of the Appendicular Skeleton
Development of the Appendicular Skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton
Figure 8.1
Pectoral Girdle
•
•
Clavicle
Scapula
Figure 8.2
Clavicle
• S-shaped
• Articulations
– medially with manubrium of sternum
– laterally with acromion of scapula
Figure 8.2
Scapula
• Broad, flat triangle
– three borders, three angles
• Articulations
– Lateral: glenoid cavity for head of
humerus
• Other features
– Posterior: bony ridge = spine
– Lateral: acromion process
– Anterior projection: coracoid process
Scapula
Figure 8.3
Upper Limb
• 30 bones per “arm”
–Humerus in brachium (upper
arm)
–Radius and ulna in
antebrachium (forearm)
–8 carpal bones in wrist
–5 metacarpals in palm
–14 phalanges in fingers
Humerus
Proximal features:
• Head: articulates with scapula
• Anatomical and surgical necks
• Greater and lesser tubercles:
for muscle attachment
• Intertubercular sulcus: for
biceps brachii tendon
Humerus
Anterior
View
Anatomical neck
Head
Greater
tubercle
Head
Lesser
tubercle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Intertubercular
sulcus
Surgical neck
Deltoid
tuberosity
Shaft
Coronoid fossa
Radial fossa
Coronoid fossa
Lateral epicondyle
Medial
epicondyle
Figure 8.4
Capitulum
Trochlea
(a) Right humerus, anterior view
right: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Capitulum
Trochlea
Humerus
• Distal features:
– Shaft
– Deltoid tuberosity for attachment
of deltoid
– Medial and lateral epicondyles
for muscle attachments
– Capitulum: round lateral
articulation for radius
– Trochlea: spool-like medial
articulation for ulna
Humerus
Distal fossae (depressions):
• Anterior
– Radial: lateral depression for
radius
– Coronoid: medial, for anterior
ulna
• Posterior
– Olecranon: largest, for posterior
ulna
Humerus – Posterior View
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Head
Greater
tubercle
Anatomical
neck
Surgicalneck
Deltoid
tuberosity
Radial
groove
Lateral
epicondyle
Olecranon
fossa
Olecranon
fossa
Medial
epicondyle
Lateral
epicondyle
Medial
epicondyle
Figure 8.4
Trochlea
Trochlea
(d) Right humerus, posterior view
(right): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Radius and Ulna
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Antebrachial bones
Olecranon
Olecranon
Trochlear
notch
Head
–parallel to each other
–in anatomical position,
radius is lateral to ulna
Neck
Radius
Coronoid process
Head
Proximal
radioulnar joint
Tuberosity of ulna
Neck
Radial
tuberosity
Shaft
Ulna
Radius
Ulna
Interosseous
membrane
Interosseous
borders
Distal
radioulnar joint
Head
Figure 8.5
Styloid
process
Styloid process
(a) Right radius and ulna, anterior view
a(right): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Styloid
process
Radius
•
•
•
Proximal features:
– Head: articulates with capitulum of
humerus
– Neck: narrowest region
– Radial tuberosity: for biceps brachii
muscle
Shaft
Distal features:
–
–
Styloid process: lateral “wrist bump”
Ulnar notch: medial dent for head of ulna
•
Ulna
Proximal features:
–
–
–
–
•
Trochlear notch: for trochlea of humerus
Olecranon: posterior “elbow bump” for
triceps brachii muscle
Coronoid process: anterior tip of
trochlear notch
Radial notch: lateral, for head of radius
Distal features:
–
–
Head: knoblike end
Styloid process: posteromedial “wrist
bump”
Radius and Ulna
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Olecranon
Olecranon
Posterior
View
Head
Proximal
radioulnar joint
Neck
Shaft
Ulna
Radius
Ulna
Radius
Interosseous
membrane
Interosseous
borders
Head
Head
Figure 8.5
Distal
radioulnar joint
Styloid processes
Styloid processes
(f) Right ulna and radius, posterior view
(right): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Radius and Ulna
(proximal and distal features)
Figure 8.5
Carpus
•
8 “wrist” bones
–
Figure 8.6
Two rows (1 proximal and 1 distal) of four
Carpals
Proximal Row
(lateral to medial)
Distal Row
(lateral to medial)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Scaphoid
Lunate
Triquetrum
Pisiform
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Hamate
Metacarpals
• 5 in palm
– named by Roman numerals I–V from medial to lateral
Figure 8.6
Phalanges
• 14 per hand
– 3 per finger #2–5
• Proximal, middle, and
distal
– 2 in pollex (thumb)
• Proximal and distal
Figure 8.6
Pelvic Girdle
• Girdle = right and left ossa coxae
– with sacrum and coccyx = the pelvis
Figure 8.7
Os Coxae
• The “hip bone”
– fusion of ilium, ischium, and pubis at 13–15
years of age
• Articulations:
– anteriorly with other os coxae
– posteriorly with the sacrum
– laterally with femur at acetabulum
• all three bones of the os coxae contribute to the
acetabulum
Acetabulum
Figure 8.9
Ilium
• Largest of the three fused bones
• Superior portion of os coxae and acetabulum
• Features:
– Ala: wide, fan-shaped portion
– Arcuate line: ridge along inferior border of
the ala
– Iliac fossa: large depression on medial
surface
– Anterior, posterior, and inferior gluteal
lines: lateral site of muscle attachments
Ilium
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Iliac crest
Iliac crest
Ala
Iliac fossa
Anterior gluteal line
Posterior gluteal line
Anterior super ioriliac spine
Posterior superior
Iliac spine
Anterior superior iliac spine
Posterior superior iliac spine
Inferior gluteal line
Auricular surface
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Greater sciatic notch
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Arcuate line
Greater sciatic notch
Lunate surface
Acetabulum
Body of ischium
Ischial spine
Lesser sciatic notch
Superior pubic ramus
Pubic crest
Pectineal line
Ischial spine
Superior pubic
ramus
Lesser sciatic notch
Body of ischium
Pubic tubercle
Pubic tubercle
Ischial tuberosity
Symphysial surface
Inferior pubic ramus
Obturator foramen
Obturator foramen
Ramus of ischium
Ilium
Posterior
Iliaccrest
Anterior
Ischium
Ilium
Anterior
Lateral view
Ramus of ischium
Posterior
Pubis
Pubis
Ischial tuberosity
Inferior pubic ramus
Iliac crest
Ischium
Medial view
Ala
Posterior superior
iliac spine
Anterior gluteal line
Iliac fossa
Posterior gluteal line
Posterior superior iliac spine
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Anterior superior iliac spine
Anterior superior iliac spine
Inferior glutealline
Greater sciatic notch
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Auricular surface
Posterior inferior
iliac spine
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Arcuate line
Body of ischium
Lunate surface
Greater sciatic
notch
Acetabulum
Ischial spine
Ischial spine
Pectineal line
Lesser sciatic notch
Superior pubic ramus
Lesser sciatic
notch
Superior pubic
ramus
Body of ischium
Pubic tubercle
Ischial tuberosity
Pubic crest
Pubic tubercle
Inferior pubic ramus
Symphysial surface
Obturator foramen
Ischial tuberosity
Ramus of ischium
Obturator foramen
Ramus of ischium
Inferior pubic
ramus
(b) Right os coxae, medial view
Figure 8.9
(a) Right os coxae, lateral view
(bott):© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Ilium
• Additional features:
– Iliac crest: superior ridge
– Anterior and posterior, superior and
inferior iliac spines: projections along
iliac crest
– Greater sciatic notch: for sciatic nerve
entering lower limb
– Auricular surface: medial articulation
with sacrum
Ischium
• Superior/posterior margin of
acetabulum
• Features:
– Ischial spine: prominent medial
process
– Ischial tuberosity: rough inferior region
that supports weight of body when
seated
– Ischial ramus: bridge from tuberosity to
pubis
Ischium
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Iliac crest
Ala
Anterior gluteal line
Posterior gluteal line
Posterior superior iliac spine
Anterior super ioriliac spine
Inferior gluteal line
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Greater sciatic notch
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Lunate surface
Body of ischium
Ischial spine
Acetabulum
Lesser sciatic notch
Superior pubic ramus
Pubic crest
Pubic tubercle
Inferior pubic ramus
Ischial tuberosity
Obturator foramen
Ramus of ischium
Ilium
Posterior
Iliaccrest
Anterior
Ischium
Pubis
Ala
Lateral view
Anterior gluteal line
Posterior gluteal line
Posterior superior iliac spine
Anterior superior iliac spine
Inferior glutealline
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Greater sciatic notch
Lunate surface
Body of ischium
Ischial spine
Lesser sciatic notch
Acetabulum
Superior pubic ramus
Ischial tuberosity
Figure 8.9
Pubic crest
Pubic tubercle
Inferior pubic ramus
Obturator foramen
Ramus of ischium
(a) Right os coxae, lateral view
(bottom): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Pubis
• Anterior region of os coxae
• Features:
– Superior and Inferior rami: struts to
acetabulum and ischial ramus
– Pubic crest: rough ridge on
anterosuperior of superior ramus; ends
as pubic tubercle
– Obturator foramen: large space
bordered by pubic and ischial rami
– Pectineal line: ridge on medial surface
of pubis continuing from arcuate line of
ilium
Pubis
Figure 8.7
True vs. False Pelvis
• True pelvis: bony basin inferior to pelvic brim
containing pelvic organs
• False pelvis: superior to pelvic brim bound by
ilia laterally and abdominal wall anteriorly
– Pelvic brim: continuous oval ridge formed by pubic
crest, pectineal line, arcuate line, and sacral
promontory
• Pelvic inlet: superior entrance to true pelvis, at
pelvic brim
• Pelvic outlet: exit of true pelvis, defined by
coccyx, ischial tuberosities, and inferior border of
pubic symphysis
Features of the Pelvis
Figure 8.10
Female vs. Male Pelvis
• Most reliable indicator of the sex of a
skeleton is the pelvis, due to the
requirements of pregnancy and childbirth
• Major differences:
–
–
–
female ilia laterally flared = wider pelvis
female pelvic inlet = wide oval, male’s =
heart-shaped
female subpubic angle wider, >100º vs. <90º
in males
Female vs. Male Pelvis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Table 8.1
View
Sex Differences Between the Female and Male Pelves
Female Pelvis
Male Pelvis
Medial View
Preauricular
sulcus
Wide greater
sciatic notch
Narrow greater
sciatic notch
Rectangular
pubic body
Triangular
pubic body
Triangular
obturator
foramen
Large, oval
obturator
foramen
Anterior View
Wide subpubic angle
Features
Female Characteristic
Narrow subpubic angle
Male Characteristic
General Appearance
Less massive; gracile processes, less prominent muscle
markings
More massive; more robust processes, more prominent muscle
markings
General Width
Hips are wider, more flared
Hips are narrower and more vertically oriented, less flared
Superior Inlet
Spacious, wide, and oval
Heart-shaped
Acetabulum
Smaller
Larger
Greater Sciatic Notch
Wide and shallow
Narrow and U-shaped, deep
Ilium
Shallow: Does not project far above sacroiliac joint
Deep: Projects farther above sacroiliac joint
Obturator Foramen
Smaller and triangular
Larger and oval
Subpubic Angle
Broader, more convex, usually greater than 100 degrees
Narrow, V-shaped, usually less than 90 degrees
Body of Pubis
Longer, more rectangular
Shorter, triangular
Preauricular Sulcus
Usually present
Usually absent
Sacrum
Shorter and wider; flatter sacral curvature
Narrower and longer; more curved (greater sacral curvature)
Coccyx
Posterior tilt
Vertical
Tilt of Pelvis
Anterior tilt to superior end of pelvis
Superior end of pelvis relatively vertical
Ischiopubic Ramus
Narrow and sharp
Broad and fl at
Ischial Spine
Rarely projects into pelvic outlet
Frequently rotated inward, projects into pelvic outlet
a-b: © David Hunt/ Smithsonian Institution; c-d: © L. Bassett/ Visuals Unlimited
Lower Limb
• 30 bones per “leg”
– femur in the femoral region (thigh)
– patella (kneecap) in the patellar
region
– tibia and fibula in the crural region
(leg)
– 7 tarsals in ankle and proximal foot
– 5 metatarsals in sole of foot
– 14 phalanges in the toes
Femur
• Longest, strongest, and heaviest
bone in the body
• Proximal features:
– Head: articulates with os coxae at
acetabulum
– Fovea: dent in head for ligament to
acetabulum
– Neck: constricted region just distal to head
– Greater and lesser trochanters: massive
processes for attachment of powerful hip and
thigh muscles
Femur
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Greater
trochanter
Neck
Head
Greater
trochanter
Head
Anterior
View
Fovea
Fovea
Greater
trochanter
Neck
Intertrochanteric line
Neck
Intertrochanteric
crest
Lesser trochanter
Lesser trochanter
Shaft
(b) Right femoral head, medial view
Head
Shaft
Patellar
surface
Shaft
Lateral
condyle
Intercondylar
fossa
(c) Right femur, inferior view
Lateral
epicondyle
Lateral
epicondyle
Figure 8.11
Lateral
condyle
Adductor
tubercle
Adductor
tubercle
Medial
epicondyle
Medial
epicondyle
Lateral
condyle
Patellar
surface
Medial
condyle
Patellar
surface
Medial
condyle
(a) Right femur, anterior view
a(right), b,c: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Medial
condyle
Femur
• Additional features:
– Intertrochanteric line: anterior between
trochanters marking the distal edge of the hip
capsule
– Gluteal tuberosity: posterior rough region for
attachment of the gluteus maximus muscle
– Linea aspera: ridge on posterior shaft for
attachment of many thigh muscles
– Distally, linea aspera splits into medial and
lateral supracondylar lines
Femur
Posterior
view
Figure 8.11
Femur
• Distal features:
– Medial and lateral condyles: smooth,
rounded articular surfaces
– Medial and lateral epicondyles: projections
just superior to the condyles
– Intercondylar fossa: deep posterior
depression that separates the condyles
– Patellar surface: smooth anterior region
between condyles where patella articulates
with the femur
Patella
• The “kneecap”
– Triangular with broad superior border and inferiorly
pointed apex
– Articulates with patellar surface of femur
Figure 8.12
Figure 8.13
Tibia and Fibula
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• 2 bones in the
leg
–parallel to each
other
–tibia is medial to
fibula
Figure 8.13
Lateral
condyle
Intercondylar
eminence
Lateral condyle
Medial condyle
Medial
condyle
Articular
facet
Superior
tibiofibular
joint
Head
Head
Tibial tuberosity
Neck
Neck
Anterior border
Fibula
Tibia
Fibula
Tibia
Shaft
Interosseous
borders
Medial
malleolus
Lateral
malleolus
Inferior articular surface
Inferior
tibiofibular
joint
Lateral
malleolus
(a) Right tibia and fibula, anterior view
Inferior articular
surface
a(right): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Medial
malleolus
Tibia
• Medial bone in crural region
• Proximal features:
– Medial and lateral condyles:
smooth surfaces for articulation with
femur
– Fibular articular facet: articulation
site for head of fibula under lateral
condyle
Tibia- Posterior View
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Intercondylar
eminence
Intercondylar
eminence
Medial
condyle
Medial
condyle
Lateral
condyle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Lateral
condyle
Superior
tibiofibularjoint
Intercondylar Intercondylar
fossa
eminence
Head
Neck
Fibular articular
facet
Femur
Tibia
Medial
condyles
Tibia
Lateral
condyles
Tibia
Fibula
Fibula
Interosseous
borders
Shaft
(e) Right knee joint, posterior view
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Medial
malleolus
Medial
malleolus
Fibular
notch
Inferior
tibiofibularjoint
Lateral malleolus
(d) Right tibia and fibula, posterior view
Figure 8.13
(right): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Lateral malleolus
Tibia
• Other features:
– Tibial tuberosity: rough anterior projection
inferior to condyles; can be palpated just
inferior to the patella; for attachment of patellar
ligament
– Tibial border: ridge along anterior surface
extending from tuberosity distally; the “shin”
– Medial malleolus: inferiormost prominent
medial process; “ankle bump”
– Articular surface: inferior surface articulates
with the talus
Tibia- Posterior View
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Intercondylar
eminence
Intercondylar
eminence
Medial
condyle
Medial
condyle
Lateral
condyle
Lateral
condyle
Superior
tibiofibularjoint
Head
Neck
Fibular articular
facet
Tibia
Tibia
Fibula
Interosseous
borders
Shaft
Figure 8.13
Medial
malleolus
Medial
malleolus
Fibular
notch
Inferior
tibiofibularjoint
Lateral malleolus
(d) Right tibia and fibula, posterior view
(right): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Lateral malleolus
Fibula
• Long, thin, lateral crural bone
– Not weight-bearing
• Features:
– proximal head with flat articular facet
for articulation with the tibia
– narrow neck and slender shaft
– distal end expands into lateral
malleolus
Fibula
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Intercondylar
eminence
Intercondylar
eminence
Medial
condyle
Medial
condyle
Lateral
condyle
Lateral
condyle
Superior
tibiofibularjoint
Head
Neck
Fibular articular
facet
Tibia
Tibia
Fibula
Interosseous
borders
Shaft
Medial
malleolus
Figure 8.13
Medial
malleolus
Fibular
notch
Inferior
tibiofibularjoint
Lateral malleolus
(d) Right tibia and fibula, posterior view
(right): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Lateral malleolus
Articulation of Head
of Fibula with Tibia
Posterior
View
Figure 8.13
Tarsus
• 7 bones form ankle and
proximal foot
–Calcaneus: largest; forms the heel
–Talus: superior-most; weightbearing; articulates with tibia
–Navicular
–Cuneiforms: medial, intermediate
and lateral
–Cuboid
Tarsals
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Distal phalanx
of hallux
Distal phalanx
of hallux
Distal phalanx
Distal phalanx
Middle phalanx
Proximal phalanx
of hallux
(great toe)
Middle phalanx
Proximal phalanx
Phalanges
Phalanges
Proximal phalanx
of hallux
(great toe)
Proximal phalanx
II
I
I
III
II
IV
V
IV
V
Metatarsals
Medial
cuneiform
Medial cuneiform
Lateral
cuneiform
Intermediate
cuneiform
III
Metatarsals
Intermediate
cuneiform
Lateral cuneiform
Navicular
Cuboid
Navicular
Cuboid
Tarsals
Talus
Talus
Calcaneus
Tarsals
Calcaneus
(a) Right foot, superior view
Distal phalanx
Distal phalanx
Middle phalanx
Middle phalanx
Phalanges
Phalanges
Proximal phalanx
Proximalphalanx
III
II
I
(Sesamoid bones
for flexor hallucis
brevis tendons)
II
I
Metatarsals
III
Metatarsals
IV
IV
V
V
Medial cuneiform
Medialcuneiform
Lateral cuneiform
Intermediate
cuneiform
Lateral
cuneiform
Cuboid
Intermediate
cuneiform
Navicular
Navicular
Cuboid
Tarsals
Tarsals
Figure 8.14
Talus
Talus
Calcaneus
Calcaneus
(b) Right foot, inferior view
a(right), b(right): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Metatarsals
• 5 bones in sole of foot
• Articulations:
–proximally with tarsals
–distally with phalanges
• Identified by Roman numerals I–V
from medial to lateral
Phalanges
• 14 bones per foot
–3 phalanges per toes 2–5
• Proximal, middle, and distal
–Great toe (hallux) only 2
• Proximal and distal
Foot Bones
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Distal phalanx
of hallux
Distal phalanx
of hallux
Distal phalanx
Distal phalanx
Middle phalanx
Proximal phalanx
of hallux
(great toe)
Middle phalanx
Proximal phalanx
Phalanges
Phalanges
Proximal phalanx
of hallux
(great toe)
Proximal phalanx
II
I
I
III
II
IV
V
IV
V
Metatarsals
Medial
cuneiform
Medial cuneiform
Lateral
cuneiform
Intermediate
cuneiform
III
Metatarsals
Intermediate
cuneiform
Lateral cuneiform
Navicular
Cuboid
Navicular
Cuboid
Tarsals
Talus
Talus
Calcaneus
Tarsals
Calcaneus
(a) Right foot, superior view
Distal phalanx
Distal phalanx
Middle phalanx
Middle phalanx
Phalanges
Phalanges
Proximal phalanx
Proximalphalanx
III
II
I
(Sesamoid bones
for flexor hallucis
brevis tendons)
II
I
Metatarsals
III
Metatarsals
IV
IV
V
V
Medial cuneiform
Medialcuneiform
Lateral cuneiform
Intermediate
cuneiform
Lateral
cuneiform
Cuboid
Intermediate
cuneiform
Navicular
Navicular
Cuboid
Tarsals
Tarsals
Figure 8.14
Talus
Talus
Calcaneus
Calcaneus
(b) Right foot, inferior view
a(right), b(right): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Christine Eckel
Foot Arches
•
•
To prevent pinching of muscles, nerves, and
blood vessels feet do not rest flat on floor
Three major arches:
– Medial: from heel to hallux; highest arch
– Lateral: from heel to 5th toe; lowest arch
– Transverse: perpendicular to other
arches; along distal row of tarsals
Foot Arches
Figure 8.15