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Biodiversity and Conservation Mark Madden and Edward Sarisley MCLFS 660 Overview Part I: Characteristics of Biodiversity Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss Part III: Solutions of Biodiversity Loss http://www.mepa.org.mt/outlook3-article9 Part I: What is Biodiversity? Biodiversity-the variety of life at the levels of genes, populations, species, and ecological communities[4] Genetic Diversity-variety of genes within a species[16] Species Diversity-variety of species within a habitat or region[16] Ecosystem Diversity- diversity of ecosystems in a given place[16] Part I: What is Biodiversity? Why Preserve it? Healthy Ecosystems Provide: Ecosystem Services • Biological Services • Medicine • Wild Genetic Varieties • Future Resources Erosion Protection • Social Benefits Nutrient Storage and • Ecotourism Recycling • Research/Education[15] Pollution Breakdown/Absorption Contributes to Climate Stability Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss Habitat Loss Exotic/Invasive Species Chemical Pollutants Over-Hunting Loss of Genetic Diversity http://www.biodiv.be/biodiversity/threats Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Habitat Loss The #1 threat to biodiversity[9] 95% of Earth is under human influence[7] 3% of land designed as protected[7] .25% of the world’s body’s of water are protected[8] Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Invasive Species Invasive Species-introduced species that thrives, spreads, and becomes so abundant that it harms native species or ecosystems[4] Case Study: Kudzu Vine (Pueraraia lobata) Farmers were encouraged to plant to reduce soil erosion Herbivores didn’t eat; outcompeted native species Currently covers 7 million acres in the US[9] Case Study: Lionfish (Pterois volitans and Pterois miles) Native to Indonesia/Pacific Ocean; Introduced into the Caribbean Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Invasive Species Kudzu Lionfish Interview w/ NOAA Scientist) http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/4/4c/Kudzu_on_trees_in_Atlan ta,_Georgia.jpg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Com mon_lionfish_at_Shaab_El_Erg_reef_%28landscape_crop%29.JP G Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Chemical Pollutants Chemical Selectivity: many pesticides used in agriculture are toxic to a broad-range of species; others are selective and only toxic to a small group of species Case Studies: Glyphosphate (active ingredient in “Round Up” Herbicide-used on crop and non-crop vegetation where total vegetation control is desired[10] Picadarin (Insect Repellent)-targets some insect species and not others[11] Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Chemical Pollutants Persistence in Environment-chemicals that persist in the environment (resist environmental degradation) are referred to as Persistent Organic Pollutants[12] Average Persistence of Organochlorine Pesticides in Soil[6] Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Chemical Pollutants Bioaccumulationaccumulation of a chemical in the adipose fatty tissue of an individual organism[9] Biomagnificationaccumulation of chemical compounds in plant and animal tissue that increases in higher levels of the food chain[4] Biomagnification vs. Bioaccumulation Animation http://www.currentscienceevent.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Biomagnification_1.jpg Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Over-Harvest Overharvest-harvest that exceeds the productive capacity of a species and causes population decline[4] Can occur with crops, plants, animals, or any natural resource Case Study: Whaling Hunted for blubber, oil, meat, baleen 1930: 50,000+ whales a year were hunted with modern techniques 1986: International Whaling Ban* Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Over-Harvest http://assets.panda.org/img/original/whales_killed_graph.png Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Genetic Diversity Artificial Selection/Selective Breeding-saving crop seeds that have the trait(s) of interest to plant for the next generation Began 10,000 years ago with modern agriculture 75% of the genetic diversity of agricultural crops has been lost[14] http://www.doctortee.com/dsu/tiftickjian/cse-img/biology/evolution/mustard-selection.jpg Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Genetic Diversity Genetically Engineered Crops-transfer of DNA segments (for pesticide resistance, frost resistance, etc) from one species to another[4] Examples: Monstanto: “Roundup Ready” Herbicide Resistant Seeds Golden Rice: Enzymes needed to make beta-carotene (Vitamin A) PBS NOVA: Engineer a Crop Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss Choosing Sites to Preserve SLOSS Controversy Wildlife Corridors Genetic Variability Captive Breeding Programs Sustainable Agriculture Human Population Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Choosing Sites to Preserve Biological “Hotspots”-areas to focus conservation efforts through establishing parks/reserves. Based on: # Vascular Plant Species # Endemic Plants How much habitat is threatened by humans[1] Challenges to Biological “Hotspots” Assumes habitats rich in plants are also rich in animals Discrimination to temperate/arctic ecosystems [1] Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Choosing Sites to Preserve 34 Biodiversity “Hotspots” Identified by Conservation International http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:251/Biology Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Choosing Sites to Preserve Gap Analysis-identifies places of conservation through geographic information systems Combines maps of rare, threatened, and common species, with maps of vegetation and habitat types to predict distribution of species Current maps of reserves are compared to predictions to identify areas that do not overlap (“gaps”) Critics: satellite image quality is too low; how valid is extrapolating plants to animals [2] Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: SLOSS Controversy SLOSS-”Single Large or Several Small” Reserves Based on Macarthur and Wilson (1967)’s Theory of Island Biogeography Would more species be maintained in 1, 100 ha preserve or 10, 10 ha acre preserves? No Single Answer Depends on each ecosystem and the species within them Edge Effects-differences in environmental and biotic conditions between the edges and interiors of habitat patches [4] Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: SLOSS Controversy http://www.zo.utexas.edu/faculty/sjasper/images/edges2.jpg Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Wildlife Corridors Wildlife Corridors-narrow strip of linear habitat that facilitates dispersal of organisms between patches of larger habitat patches[4] Case Study: Florida panther (Puma concolr coryi) Tunnels under highways have been constructed linking habitat patches Habitat corridors Benefit Isolated Plants http://www.wildlifeandroads.org/media/images/gallery/fldot_panther.jpg Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Wildlife Corridors http://nac.unl.edu/buffers/images/guide/2.3a.jpg • Potential Downsides • No use • Humans use for recreation instead • Ambush predators • Example: Diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) • Facilitate Homogeneity instead of heterozygosity • Spread of exotic species • Example: feral Pigs (Sus scrofa) Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Genetic Variability Effective Population Size (Ne)-minimum population size in which the % of alleles do not change significantly through generations “Buffers” the effects of genetic drift Equation: [Ht/Ho]=1-[1/2Ne]t Ht=Heterozygosity after t generations Ho=Original Heterozygosity Assumes no generational overlap and all individuals breed Smaller Populations, Faster heterozygosity declines Greater chances of genetic drift Greater chances of inbreeding[3] Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Genetic Variability Effect Population Size Practice Problem Calculate the effective population size of the Florida panther to retain 98% heterozygosity over 100 generations. 1. [Ht/Ho]=1-[1/2Ne]t 2. .95=1-[1/2Ne]100 3. .95=e-100/2Ne 4. Ne=4,950 individuals Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Captive Breeding Captive Breeding-the removal of all or some of the remaining individuals from a wild population to a facility where young can be produced and cared for, with the objective of creating large numbers of individuals for re-relapse into the wild Genetic Diversity should be preserved by: More adults Even sex ratio Pedigree tracking to prevent inbreeding[4] Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Captive Breeding A Success Story: California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus): Ate lead ammunition left behind by hunters 1986: 8 remained in the wild; all captured and captive breeding program began 2008: 320 individuals; half released into the wild Critics Doesn’t address the root problem (habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, lack of food, etc Genetic Drift/Bottleneck Effect Costly[4] Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Captive Breeding California Condor on National Geographic http://i.imgur.com/6z402wdh.jpg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia /commons/a/a4/Condor_in_flight.JPG Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Sustainable Agriculture Sustainable Agriculture-maintains agriculture productivity indefinitely Guiding Features Crop Rotation Tillage Practices (Conserve soil/water) Diversified Operations Integrated Pest Management[6] Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Human Population World Population must stabilize in order to sustain global biodiversity indefinitely But how? Increase Quality of Life Empower women to control their own fertility Education and economic opportunities Contraceptives[4] “The raging monster upon the land is population growth. In its presence, sustainability is but a theoretical construct.”-Wilson (1992)[5] Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Human Population Population Connection “World Population” US Census World Population Estimate http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/images/worldpop.png Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Laws National Environmental Policy Act Provides for the consideration of environmental issues in Federal Agency planning and decision making Environmental Impact Statement Required for projects on federal land or federal projects on private land Cost vs. benefit analysis Weighs positive outcomes of project vs. environmental effects[6] Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Laws Endangered Species Act Protects all endangered or threatened species and their habitats Unlawful to kill, disturb, possess, or sell a listed species[6] 10 Critically Endangered Animals Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: How Can YOU Get Involved? The Student Conservation Association Endangered, Threatened, and Special Concern Species in CT Unit Assignment: Biodiversity and Conservation in Coral Reefs References [1] Myers, N. 1988. Threatened biotas: “Hot spots” in tropical forests. Environmentalist 8: 187-208., 1990 [2] Schmidt, K. 1996. Biodiversity: Some biologists see holes in gap analysis. Science 274: 917. [3] Futuyma DJ. 1986. Evolutionary Biology, 2nd Ed. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Assoc., Inc. [4] Kareiva P and Marvier M. 2011. Conservation Science: Balancing the needs of people and nature. 1st ed. Greenwood Village, CO: Roberts and Company Publishers [5] Wilson EO. 1992. The Diversity of Life. New York, NY: WW Norton and Company. References [6] Bottrell, D. 2015. Modules in the MCLFS 660 Course. University of Maryland. [7] Western, D. 1989. Why manage nature? In Conservation for the Twenty-First Century, eds. D Western, MC Pearl, pp. 133-37. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. [8] Ocean Voice International. 1995. Status of the world ocean and biodiversity. Sea Wind 9: 1-72. [9] Friedland, A, Relyea, R, and Courard-Hauri, D. 2012. Environmental Science for AP. New York, NY. W.H. Freeman and Company References [10] Technical Fact Sheet on: Glyphosphate. nd. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 2/15/15 from: http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/pdfs/factsheets/soc/tech/glypho sa.pdf [11] Technical Fact Sheet: Picadarin. 2005. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 2/15/15 from: http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/reg_actions/regis tration/fs_PC-070705_01-May-05.pdf [12] Ritter L, Solomon KR, Forget J. Stemeroff M; O'Leary C. Persistent organic pollutants". United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved 2/15/15 from http://www.chem.unep.ch/pops/ritter/en/ritteren.pdf [13] History of Whaling. 2015. Whale Facts. Retreived 2/15/15 from http://www.whalefacts.org/history-of-whaling/ References [14] Harvesting Nature’s Diversity. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2/15/15 from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/v1430e/V1430E04.ht m [15] Shah A. 2014. Why is biodiversity important? Who cares? Global Issues. Retrieved 2/15/15 from: http://www.globalissues.org/article/170/why-isbiodiversity-important-who-cares [16] Australian Museum. 2009. What is Biodiversity? Retrieved 2/15/15 from: http://australianmuseum.net.au/what-is-biodiversity .
