Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
PreAP BIOLOGY FALL FINAL EXAM OUTLINE UNIT 1: THE NATURE OF SCIENCE CHAPTER 1: THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY Section 1.1: What is Science? - Definition of “Science” - Goal of Science - Scientific Methodology o Observation o Forming a Question Inferences o Hypothesis o Controlled Experiment Independent (Manipulated) Variable Dependent (Responding) Variable Control Group Experimental Group o Data Collection Quantitative Data Qualitative Data Equipment Charts and Graphs Sources of Error o Drawing Conclusions Revising Hypothesis Section 1.3: Studying Life - Definition of “Biology” - Characteristics of Living Things o Made Up of Cells o Based on Universal Genetic Code DNA o Obtain and Use Materials and Energy Metabolism o Grow and Develop o Reproduce Asexual Sexual o Respond to Their Environment Stimulus and Response o - - Maintain a Stable Internal Environment Homeostasis o Change Over Time Evolve Central Themes of Biology (Big Ideas) o Cellular Basis of Life o Information and Energy o Growth, Development, and Reproduction o Homeostasis o Evolution o Structure and Function o Unity and Diversity of Life o Interdependence in Nature o Science as a Way of Knowing Performing Biological Investigations o Scientific Measurement Metric System International System of Units (SI) o Laboratory Safety UNIT 2: ECOLOGY CHAPTER 3: THE BIOSPHERE Section 3.1: What is Ecology? - Investigating Our Living Planet o Biosphere o “Ecology” o Ecological Levels of Organization Individual Organisms Population Community Ecosystem Biome Biosphere - Biotic and Abiotic Factors o Biotic Factor o Abiotic Factor Section 3.2: Energy, Producers, and Consumers - Primary Producers o Autotrophs o Primary Producers o Photosynthesis o Chemosynthesis - Consumers o Heterotrophs o Consumers Carnivores Herbivores Omnivores Scavengers Decomposers Detritivores Section 3.3: Energy Flow in Ecosystems - Food Chains and Food Webs o Food Chains o Food Webs Role of Decomposers - Analyzing Energy and Matter Flow Through Trophic Levels o Trophic Level o Ecological Pyramids Energy Pyramid 10% Rule Biomass Pyramid Biomass Numbers Pyramid Section 3.4: Cycle of Matter - Recycling in the Biosphere o Biogeochemical Cycles o Biological Processes o Geological Processes o Chemical and Physical Processes o Human Activity - The Water Cycle - Nutrient Cycles o Nutrient o The Carbon Cycle o The Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen Fixation Denitrification o The Phosphorus Cycle - Nutrient Limitation o Limiting Nutrient Nutrient Limitation in Soil Nutrient Limitation in Aquatic Ecosystems CHAPTER 4: ECOSYSTEMS AND COMMUNITIES Section 4.1: Climate - Weather and Climate o Weather - o Climate Factors That Affect Climate o Local Climate o Global Climate o Greenhouse Effect o Latitude and Solar Energy o Heat Transport in the Biosphere Section 4.2: Niches and Community Interactions - The Niche o Habitat o Niche Physical External Factors Biological External Factors Resources - Competition o Competitive Exclusion Principle o Dividing Resources - Predation, Herbivory, and Keystone Species o Predator-Prey Relationships o Herbivore-Plant Relationships Herbivory o Keystone Species - Symbiosis o Mutualism o Parasitism o Commensalism Section 4.3: Succession - Primary and Secondary Succession o Ecological Succession o Primary Succession Pioneer Species o Secondary Succession - Climax Communities Section 4.4: Biomes - The Major Biomes (General characteristics such as temperature and precipitation) o Regional Climate o Tropical Rain Forest o Tropical Dry Forest o Tropical Grassland/Savanna/Shrubland o Desert o Temperate Grassland o Temperate Woodland and Shrubland o Temperate Forest o Northwestern Coniferous Forest o Boreal Forest o Tundra CHAPTER 5: POPULATIONS Section 5.1: How Populations Grow - Describing Populations o Geographic Range o Density Population Density - Population Growth o Birthrate and Death Rate o Immigration and Emigration - Exponential Growth o Exponential Growth o Rapidly Reproducing Organisms o Slowly Reproducing Organisms o Organisms in New Environments o Models of Exponential Growth Exponential Growth Curve - Logistic Growth o Phases of Growth Phase 1: Exponential Growth Phase 2: Growth Slows Down Phase 3: Growth Stops o The Logistic Growth Curve o Carrying Capacity Section 5.2: Limits to Growth - Limiting Factors - Density-Dependent Limiting Factors o Competition o Predation o Herbivory o Human Predation o Parasitism o Disease o Stress from Overcrowding - Density-Independent Limiting Factors o “Natural Disasters” o Controlling Introduced Species Section 5.3: Human Population Growth - Historical Overview o Exponential Human Population Growth o The Predictions of Malthus o World Population Growth Slows CHAPTER 6: HUMANS IN THE BIOSPHERE Section 6.1: A Changing Landscape - The Effects of Human Activity o Agriculture Monoculture o Development o Industrial Growth - Sustainable Development o Renewable Resources o Nonrenewable Resources Section 6.2: Using Resources Wisely - Soil Resources o Soil Erosion Desertification Deforestation o Soil Use and Sustainability - Freshwater Resources o Water Pollution Industrial and Agricultural Chemicals Biological Magnification o Water Quality and Sustainability - Atmospheric Resources o Air Pollution o Air Quality and Sustainability Section 6.3: Biodiversity - The Value of Biodiversity o Types of Biodiversity Ecosystem Diversity Species Diversity Genetic Diversity - Threats to Biodiversity o Altered Habitats Habitat Fragmentation o Introduced Species o Pollution o Climate Change - Conserving Biodiversity o Protecting Individual Species o Preserving Habitats and Ecosystems o Considering Local Interests UNIT 3: BIOCHEMISTRY CHAPTER 2: THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE Section 2.1: The Nature of Matter - Atoms o Subatomic Particles Protons Neutrons Electrons - Elements and Isotopes o Element o Isotope Radioactive Isotopes - Chemical Compounds o Compound - Chemical Bonds o Ionic Bond o Covalent Bond Molecule Section 2.2: Properties of Water - The Water Molecule o Polarity o Hydrogen Bonding Cohesion Adhesion Heat Capacity - Solutions and Suspensions o Mixture o Solutions Solute Solvent - Acids, Bases, and pH o Dissociation of Water Hydrogen Ions Hydroxide Ions o pH Scale o Acids o Bases o Buffers Section 2.3: Carbon Compounds - The Chemistry of Carbon o 4 Valence Electrons o Common Bonding Elements o Covalent Bonds (Single, Double) o Carbon Structures - Biomolecules o Macromolecules o Polymerization Monomer Polymer o 4 Biomolecules (Macromolecules) Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Polysaccharides Lipids Saturated Unsaturated Nucleic Acids Nucleotides DNA and RNA Protein Structure o Amino Acids (20) o Peptide Bonds o Polypeptides Function o R-Groups Organization o Primary Structure o Secondary Structure o Tertiary Structure o Quaternary Structure Section 2.4: Chemical Reactions and Enzymes - Chemical Reactions o Reactants o Products - Energy in Reactions o Energy Changes o Energy Sources o Activation Energy - Enzymes o Proteins o Catalyst Lowering Activation Energy o Enzyme Substrate Complex Active Site Substrate Lock-and-Key Fit o Regulation of Enzyme Activity Temperature pH Regulatory Molecules Competitive Inhibitors Noncompetitive Inhibitors UNIT 4: CELLULAR BIOLOGY CHAPTER 7: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Section 7.1: Life is Cellular - The Discovery of the Cell o Early Microscopes o The Cell Theory - Exploring the Cell o Light Microscopes o Electron Microscopes Transmission (TEM) Scanning (SEM) - Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes o Cell Size o Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane) o Prokaryotes No Membrane-Bound Nucleus Smaller Unicellular “Bacteria” o Eukaryotes True Nucleus Larger and More Complex Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms Protists, Fungus, Plants, and Animals Section 7.2: Cell Structure - Cell Organization o Cytoplasm o Organelles o Nucleus Nuclear Envelope Nuclear Pores Chromosomes DNA Nucleolus - Organelles that Store, Clean Up, and Support o Vacuoles Central Vacuole Contractile Vacuole Vesicles - - - o Lysosomes o Cytoskeleton Organelles that Build Proteins o Ribosomes Protein Synthesis o Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough ER Smooth ER o Golgi Apparatus Organelles that Capture and Release Energy o Chloroplasts o Mitochondria Cellular Boundaries o Cell Wall o Cell Membrane Lipid Bilayer Hydrophobic (Tails) Hydrophilic (Heads) Fluid Mosaic Model Selectively Permeable Section 7.3: Cell Transport - Passive Transport o Diffusion o Concentration Gradient o Facilitated Diffusion Carrier/ Channel Proteins o Osmosis Aquaporins Isotonic Solution Hypertonic Solution Plant Cells: Plasmolysis Hypotonic Solution Plant Cells: Turgid Animal Cells: Lyse Osmotic Pressure - Active Transport o Molecular Transport o Bulk Transport Endocytosis Exocytosis Section 7.4: Homeostasis and Cells - The Cell as an Organism o Homeostasis o Single-Celled Organisms (Unicellular) - Multicellular Life o Cellular Specialization Animal Cells Plant Cells o Levels of Organization Cells Tissues Organs Organ Systems Organism UNIT 5: CELLULAR ENERGETICS CHAPTER 9: CELLULAR RESPIRATION Chemical Pathways - Glucose - Calorie - Mitochondria Structure - “Cellular Respiration” - Chemical Equation for Cellular Respiration - Glycolysis o ATP Production o NADH Production NAD+ converted to NADH - Fermentation o Anaerobic o Lactic Acid Fermentation The Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport - Aerobic - “The Krebs Cycle” o Pyruvic Acid (Pyruvate) o CO2 o NADH and FADH2 - The Electron Transport Chain o NADH and FADH2 o H+ Ions o ATP Synthase o ATP Synthesis - The Totals o ATP o Efficiency of Cellular Respiration - Energy and Exercise - Comparing Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration CHAPTER 8: PHOTOSYNTHESIS Energy and Life - Autotrophs - Heterotrophs - ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) o ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) o Stored Energy o Chemical Equation for ATP Synthesis Photosynthesis: An Overview - “Photosynthesis” - The Photosynthesis Equation - Pigments o Chlorophyll (a and b) The Reactions of Photosynthesis - Chloroplasts o Thylakoids o Grana o Photosystems o Stroma - Electron Carriers o NADP+ converted to NADPH - Light Dependent Reactions o H+ o NADPH o ATP Synthase - The Calvin Cycle o Carbon Fixation (CO2) o Sugar Production - Factors Affecting Photosynthesis UNIT 6: CELLULAR REPRODUCTION CHAPTER 12: DNA Identifying the Substances of Genes - The Role of DNA o Storing Genetic Information o Copying Genetic Information o Transmitting Genetic Information Structure of DNA o Nucleotides Sugar (Deoxyribose) o o o o Phosphate Nitrogenous Bases Purines o Adenine o Guanine Pyrimidines o Thymine o Cytosine Chargaff’s Rules Rosalind Franklin Watson and Crick Double Helix Model Antiparallel Strands Hydrogen Bonding Base Pairing CHAPTER 10: CELL GROWTH AND DIVISION Cell Growth, Division, and Reproduction - Limits to Cell Size o Exchanging Materials Surface Area to Volume Ratio - Cell Division and Reproduction o Asexual Reproduction o Sexual Reproduction o Comparing Asexual and Sexual Reproduction The Process of Cell Division - Chromosomes o Prokaryotic Chromosomes o Eukaryotic Chromosomes Chromatin - The Cell Cycle o The Prokaryotic Cell Cycle Binary Fission o The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle Interphase G1 Phase S Phase G2 Phase M Phase (Cell Division) o Mitosis Prophase Centromere Chromatid Centrioles Spindle o Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis Animal: Cleavage Furrow Plant: Cell Plate Regulating the Cell Cycle - Uncontrolled Cell Growth o Cancer Tumor o Causes of Cancer o Treatments for Cancer CHAPTER 11: INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS Section 4: Meiosis - Chromosome Number o Diploid Cells (2n) Homologous Chromosomes o Haploid Cells (n) - Phases of Meiosis o Meiosis I (PMAT 1) Tetrad Crossing-Over o Meiosis II (PMAT II) - Gamete Formation - Zygote - Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis UNIT 7: GENETICS CHAPTER 11: INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS The Work of Gregor Mendel - Inheritance - Gregor Mendel o Garden Peas o Fertilization o True-Breeding o Cross-Pollination o Traits o Monohybrid Crosses o Mendel’s Seven Crosses o P, F1, F2 Generations o o o o o o Hybrids Genes Alleles Mendel’s Two Conclusions Biological Inheritance is Determined by Genes Principle of Dominance Dominant and Recessive Alleles Law of Segregation Gametes Probability and Punnett Squares - Principle of Probability - Punnett Squares o Homozygous Dominant o Heterozygous o Homozygous Recessive o Phenotype vs. Genotype - Probability and Segregation - Probabilities Predict Averages Exploring Mendelian Genetics - Dihybrid Crosses - Law of Independent Assortment - A Summary of Mendel’s Principles o Complete Dominance - Non-Mendelian Genetics o Incomplete Dominance o Codominance o Multiple Alleles o Polygenic Traits - Environmental Impacts on Genetics